the system espoused by Hans Vaihinger (Vaihinger, Hans) in his major philosophical work Die Philosophie des Als Ob (1911; The Philosophy of “As If”), which proposed that man willingly accept falsehoods or fictions in order to live peacefully in an irrational world. Vaihinger, who saw life as a maze of contradictions and philosophy as a search for means to make life livable, began by accepting Immanuel Kant's view that knowledge is limited to phenomena and cannot reach to things-in-themselves. In order to survive, man must use his will to construct fictional explanations of phenomena “as if ” there were rational grounds for believing that such a method reflects reality. Logical contradictions were simply disregarded. Thus in physics, man must proceed “as if ” a material world exists independently of perceiving subjects; in behaviour, he must act “as if ” ethical certainty were possible; in religion, he must believe “as if ” there were a God.

Vaihinger denied that his philosophy was a form of Skepticism. He pointed out that skepticism implies a doubting; but in his “as if ” philosophy there is nothing dubious about patently false fictions that, unlike ordinary hypotheses, are not subject to verification. Their acceptance is justified as nonrational solutions to problems that have no rational answers. Vaihinger's “as if ” philosophy is interesting as a venture in the direction of pragmatism made quite independently of contemporary American developments.