born February 25, 1841, Limoges, France

died December 3, 1919, Cagnes

French painter originally associated with the Impressionist (Impressionism) movement. His early works were typically Impressionist snapshots of real life, full of sparkling colour and light. By the mid-1880s, however, he had broken with the movement to apply a more disciplined, formal technique to portraits and figure paintings, particularly of women.

Circumstances encouraged Renoir to attempt a new freedom and experimentation in his style. The convention of the time was that a painting—even a landscape—had to be executed in the studio. In the spring of 1864, however, Gleyre's four students moved temporarily to the forest of Fontainebleau (Fontainebleau, school of), where they devoted themselves to painting directly from nature (plein-air painting). The Fontainebleau forest had earlier attracted other artists, among them Théodore Rousseau (Rousseau, Théodore) and Jean-François Millet (Millet, Jean-François), who insisted that art represent the reality of everyday life, even though they had not yet completely renounced the constraints imposed by traditional training. In 1863 Édouard Manet (Manet, Édouard) took a much bolder step: his picture Déjeuner sur l'herbe (“Luncheon on the Grass”) provoked a violent scandal because its subject and technique stressed the observation of modern reality over the repetition of a traditional ideal. Manet's daring made him, in the eyes of these young artists, the leader of a new movement.

Renoir's work is a perfect illustration of this new approach in thought and technique. By using small, multicoloured strokes, he evoked the vibration of the atmosphere, the sparkling effect of foliage, and especially the luminosity of a young woman's skin in the outdoors. Renoir and his companions stubbornly strove to produce light-suffused paintings from which black was excluded, but their pursuits led to many disappointments: their paintings, so divergent from traditional formulas, were frequently rejected by the juries of the Salon and were extremely difficult to sell. Despite the continuing criticism, some of the Impressionists were making themselves known, as much among art critics as among the lay public. Renoir, because of his fascination with the human figure, was distinctive among the others, who were more interested in landscape. Thus, he obtained several orders for portraits and was introduced, thanks to the publisher Georges Charpentier, to upper-middle-class society, from whom he obtained commissions for portraits, most notably of women and children.

In 1881 and 1882 Renoir made several trips to Algeria, Italy, and Provence, and these eventually had a considerable effect on his art and on his life. He became convinced that the systematic use of the Impressionistic technique was no longer sufficient for him and that small brushstrokes of contrasting colours placed side by side did not allow him to convey the satiny effects of the skin. He also discovered that black did not deserve the opprobrium given to it by his comrades and that, in certain cases, it had a striking effect and gave a great intensity to the other colours. During his journey to Italy, he discovered Raphael and the hallmarks of classicism (Classicism and Neoclassicism): the beauty of drawing, the purity of a clear line to define a form, and the expressive force of smooth painting when used to enhance the suppleness and modeling of a body. At this same time, he happened to read Il libro dell'arte (1437; A Treatise on Painting) by Cennino Cennini (Cennini, Cennino), which reinforced his new ideas. All of these revelations were so powerful and unexpected that they provoked a crisis, and he was tempted to break with Impressionism, which he had already begun to doubt. He felt that until now he had been mistaken in pursuing the ephemeral in art.

Most of his works executed from 1883 to 1884 on are so marked by a new discipline that art historians have grouped them under the title the “Ingres” period (to signify their vague similarity to the technique of J.-A.-D. Ingres (Ingres, J.-A.-D)) or the “harsh,” or “dry,” period. Renoir's experiments with Impressionism were not wasted, however, because he retained a luminous palette. Nevertheless, in paintings from this period, such as The Umbrellas (c. 1883) and many depictions of bathers, Renoir emphasized volume, form, contours, and line rather than colour and brushstroke.

His strong reaction against Impressionism continued until about 1890. During these years he made several trips to southern France: Aix-en-Provence, Marseille, and Martigues. The nature of this sunlit region gave greater encouragement to his separation from Impressionism, which to him was associated with the landscapes of the valley of the Seine. Southern France offered him scenes bursting with colour and sensuality. At the same time, the seemingly joyous spontaneity of nature gave him the desire to depart from his newfound adherence to the dictates of classicism. While in southern France, he recovered the instinctive freshness of his art; he painted women at their bath with the same healthful bloom he would give to bouquets of flowers.

His financial situation was appreciably improved; he was married in 1890 to Aline Charigot (some sources give the year as 1881), and the exposition that was organized for him in 1892 by the dealer Paul Durand-Ruel (Durand-Ruel, Paul) was a great success. Renoir's future was assured, and his work of that period reflected his new security and also his confidence in the future.

Renoir had his first attack of rheumatism in 1894, and, as the attacks became more and more frequent, he spent more and more time in southern France, where the climate was better for his health. About 1899 he sought refuge in the small village of Cagnes; in 1907 he settled there permanently, buying the estate of Les Collettes, where he spent the rest of his life. In 1910 he was no longer able to walk. Although his infirmity became more and more constraining, Renoir never ceased to paint; when his fingers were no longer supple, he continued by binding his paintbrush to his hand.

Surveys of the artist's life and works include Anne Distel, Renoir: A Sensuous Vision (1995; originally published in French, 1993); and Sophie Monneret, Renoir (1990; originally published in French, 1989), which is magnificently illustrated. A well-illustrated and well-documented overview of the artist's career is offered in Barbara Ehrlich White, Renoir: His Life, Art, and Letters (1984, reissued 1988). Exhibition catalogs provide the most comprehensive study of Renoir's oeuvre, including Anne Distel and John House, Renoir (1985), which presents a detailed chronology; and Götz Adriani, Renoir (1999; first published in German, 1996), which spans Renoir's complete career. Among the more insightful contemporary accounts of the artist are Ambroise Vollard, Renoir: An Intimate Record, trans. by Harold L. Van Doren and Randolph T. Weaver (1925, reprinted 1990; originally published in French, 1920), written by his dealer; and Jean Renoir, Renoir, My Father, trans. from French (1962, reprinted 1988).Specific aspects of Renoir's development as an artist are discussed in John Rewald (ed.), Renoir Drawings (1946, reissued 1958). Denis Rouart, Renoir (1985; trans. from French rev. and enlarged ed., 1954), focuses on the artist's career after 1890. Studies on individual themes in his paintings include Isabelle Cahn, Renoir Nudes (1996); Colin B. Bailey, Renoir's Portraits: Impressions of an Age (1997), which features extensive information about his sitters; and Eliza E. Rathbone et al., Impressionists on the Seine: A Celebration of Renoir's Luncheon of the Boating Party (1996), a collection of essays.