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Picasso, Pablo

Spanish artist

Introduction

in full Pablo Ruiz y Picasso

born October 25, 1881, Málaga, Spain

died April 8, 1973, Mougins, France

Spanish expatriate painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist, and stage designer, one of the greatest and most influential artists of the 20th century and the creator (with Georges Braque) of Cubism.

The enormous body of Picasso's work remains, and the legend lives on—a tribute to the vitality of the “disquieting” Spaniard with the “sombre . . . piercing” eyes who superstitiously believed that work would keep him alive. For nearly 80 of his 91 years Picasso devoted himself to an artistic production that contributed significantly to and paralleled the whole development of modern art in the 20th century.

Life and career

Early years

Pablo Picasso was the son of José Ruiz Blasco, a professor of drawing, and Maria Picasso López. His unusual adeptness for drawing began to manifest itself early, around the age of 10, when he became his father's pupil in La Coruña, where the family moved in 1891. From that point his ability to experiment with what he learned and to develop new expressive means quickly allowed him to surpass his father's abilities. In La Coruña his father shifted his own ambitions to those of his son, providing him with models and support for his first exhibition there at the age of 13.

The family moved to Barcelona in the autumn of 1895, and Pablo entered the local art academy (La Llotja), where his father had assumed his last post as professor of drawing. The family hoped that their son would achieve success as an academic painter, and in 1897 his eventual fame in Spain seemed assured; in that year his painting Science and Charity, for which his father modeled for the doctor, was awarded an honorable mention in Madrid at the Fine Arts Exhibition.

The Spanish capital was the obvious next stop for the young artist intent on gaining recognition and fulfilling family expectations. Pablo Ruiz duly set off for Madrid in the autumn of 1897 and entered the Royal Academy of San Fernando. But finding the teaching there stupid, he increasingly spent his time recording life around him, in the cafés, on the streets, in the brothels, and in the Prado, where he discovered Spanish painting. He wrote: “The Museum of paintings is beautiful. Velázquez first class; from El Greco some magnificent heads, Murillo does not convince me in every one of his pictures.” Works by these and other artists would capture Picasso's imagination at different times during his long career. Goya, for instance, was an artist whose works Picasso copied in the Prado in 1898 (a portrait of the bullfighter Pepe Illo and the drawing for one of the Caprichos, Bien tirada está, which shows a Celestina 【procuress】 checking a young maja's stockings). These same characters reappear in his late work—Pepe Illo in a series of engravings (1957) and Celestina as a kind of voyeuristic self-portrait, especially in the series of etchings and engravings known as Suite 347 (1968).

Picasso fell ill in the spring of 1898 and spent most of the remaining year convalescing in the Catalan village of Horta de Ebro in the company of his Barcelona friend Manuel Pallarès. When Picasso returned to Barcelona in early 1899, he was a changed man: he had put on weight, he had learned to live on his own in the open countryside, he spoke Catalan, and most importantly he had made the decision to break with his art school training and to reject his family's plans for his future. He even began to show a decided preference for his mother's surname, and more often than not he signed his works P.R. Picasso (by late 1901 he had dropped the Ruiz altogether).

In Barcelona Picasso moved among a circle of Catalan artists and writers whose eyes were turned toward Paris. These were his friends at the café Els Quatre Gats (“The Four Cats,” styled after the Chat Noir 【“Black Cat”】 in Paris), where Picasso had his first Barcelona exhibition in February 1900, and they were the subjects of more than 50 portraits (in mixed media) in the show. In addition, there was a dark, moody “modernista” painting, Last Moments (later painted over), showing the visit of a priest to the bedside of a dying woman, a work that was accepted for the Spanish section of the Exposition Universelle in Paris in that year. Eager to see his own work in place and to experience Paris firsthand, Picasso set off in the company of his studio-mate Carles Casagemas (Portrait of Carles Casagemas, 1899) to conquer, if not Paris, at least a corner of Montmartre.

Discovery of Paris

One of Picasso's principal artistic discoveries on that trip (October–December) was colour—not the drab colours of the Spanish palette, the black of the shawls of Spanish women, or the ochres and browns of the Spanish landscape, but brilliant colour—the colour of Van Gogh, of new fashion, of a city celebrating a world's fair. Using charcoal, pastels, watercolours, and oils, Picasso recorded life in the French capital (Lovers in the Street, 1900). In Moulin de la Galette (1900) he paid tribute to French artists such as Toulouse-Lautrec and Steinlen as well as his Catalan compatriot Ramon Casas.

After just two months Picasso returned to Spain with Casagemas, who had become despondent about a failed love affair. Having tried unsuccessfully to amuse his friend in Málaga, Picasso took off for Madrid, where he worked as an art editor for a new journal, Arte Joven. Casagemas returned to Paris and attempted to shoot the woman he loved, then turned the gun on himself and died. The impact on Picasso was deep: it was not just that he had lost his loyal friend and perhaps felt a sense of guilt for having abandoned him; more importantly, he had gained the emotional experience and the material that would stimulate the powerful expressiveness of the works of the so-called Blue Period. Picasso made two death portraits of Casagemas several months later in 1901 as well as two funeral scenes (Mourners and Evocation), and in 1903 Casagemas appeared as the artist in the enigmatic painting La Vie.

Blue Period

Between 1901 and mid-1904, when blue was the predominant colour in his paintings, Picasso moved back and forth between Barcelona and Paris, taking material for his work from one place to the other. For example, his visits to the Women's Prison of Saint-Lazare in Paris in 1901–02, which provided him with free models and compelling subject matter (The Soup, 1902), were reflected in his depictions of Barcelona street people—blind or lonely beggars and castaways in 1902–03 (Crouching Woman, 1902; Blind Man's Meal, 1903; Old Jew and a Boy, 1903). The subject of maternity (women were allowed to keep nursing children with them at the prison) also preoccupied Picasso at a time when he was searching for material that would best express traditional art-historical subjects in 20th-century terms.

The move to Paris

Picasso finally made the decision to move permanently to Paris in the spring of 1904, and his work reflects a change of spirit and especially a change of intellectual and artistic currents. The traveling circus and saltimbanques became a subject he shared with a new and important friend, Guillaume Apollinaire (Apollinaire, Guillaume). To both the poet and the painter these rootless wandering performers (Girl Balancing on a Ball, 1905; The Actor, 1905) became a kind of evocation of the artist's position in modern society. Picasso specifically made this identification in Family of Saltimbanques (1905), where he assumes the role of Harlequin and Apollinaire is the strongman (according to their mutual friend, the writer André Salmon).

Picasso's personal circumstances also changed at the end of 1904, when Fernande Olivier became his mistress. Her presence inspired many works during the years leading up to Cubism, especially on their trip to Gosol in 1906 (Woman with Loaves), including the sculpture Head of a Woman (1909) and several paintings related to it (Woman with Pears, 1909).

Colour never came easily to Picasso, and he reverted to a generally more Spanish (i.e., monochromatic) palette. The tones of the Blue Period were replaced from late 1904 to 1906 in the so-called Rose Period by those of pottery, of flesh, and of the earth itself (The Harem, 1906). Picasso seems to have been working with colour in an attempt to come closer to sculptural form, especially in 1906 (Two Nudes; La Toilette). His Portrait of Gertrude Stein (1906) and a Self-Portrait with Palette (1906) show this development as well as the influence of his discovery of primitive Iberian sculpture.

Les Demoiselles d'Avignon

Toward the end of 1906 Picasso began work on a large composition that came to be called Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907). His violent treatment of the female body and masklike painting of the faces (influenced by a study of African art) have made this work controversial. Yet the work was firmly based upon art-historical tradition: a renewed interest in El Greco (Greco, El) contributed to the fracturing of the space and the gestures of the figures, while the overall composition owed much to Paul Cézanne (Cézanne, Paul)'s Bathers as well as to J.-A-.D. Ingres (Ingres, J.-A.-D)'s harem scenes. The Demoiselles, however, named by Picasso's friend Max Jacob (to refer to Avignon Street in Barcelona, where sailors found popular brothels), was perceived as a shocking and direct assault: these women were not conventional images of beauty but prostitutes who challenged the very tradition from which they were born. Although he had his collectors by this date (Leo and Gertrude Stein, the Russian merchant Sergey Shchukin) and a dealer (Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler), Picasso chose to roll up the canvas of the Demoiselles and to keep it out of sight for several years.

In 1908 the African-influenced striations and masklike heads were superseded by a technique that incorporated elements he and his new friend Georges Braque (Braque, Georges) found in the work of Cézanne, whose shallow space and characteristic planar brushwork are especially evident in Picasso's work of 1909. Still lifes, inspired by Cézanne, also became an important subject for the first time in Picasso's career.

Cubism

Picasso and Braque (Braque, Georges) worked together closely during the next few years (1909–12)—the only time Picasso ever worked with another painter in this way—and they developed what came to be known as Analytical Cubism. Early Cubist paintings were often misunderstood by critics and viewers because they were thought to be merely geometric art. Yet the painters themselves believed they were presenting a new kind of reality that broke away from Renaissance tradition, especially from the use of perspective and illusion. For example, they showed multiple views of an object on the same canvas to convey more information than could be contained in a single, limited illusionistic view.

As Kahnweiler (Kahnweiler, Daniel-Henry) saw it, Cubism signified the opening up of closed form by the “re-presentation” of the form of objects and their position in space instead of their imitation through illusionistic means; and the analytic process of fracturing objects and space, light and shadow, and even colour was likened by Apollinaire to the way in which the surgeon dissects a cadaver. This type of analysis is characteristic of Picasso's work beginning in 1909, especially in the landscapes he made on a trip to Spain that summer (Factory at Horta de Ebro). These were followed in 1910 with a series of hermetic portraits (Ambroise Vollard; Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler); and in his 1911–12 paintings of seated figures, often playing musical instruments (The Accordionist, 1911), Picasso merged figures, objects, and space on a kind of grid. The palette was once again limited to monochromatic ochres, browns, and grays.

Neither Braque nor Picasso desired to move into the realm of total abstraction in their Cubist works, although they implicitly accepted inconsistencies such as different points of view, different axes, and different light sources in the same picture. Furthermore, the inclusion of abstract and representational elements on the same picture plane led both artists to reexamine what two-dimensional elements, such as newspaper lettering, signified. A song title, "Ma Jolie," for instance, could point to events outside the painting; it could refer narratively to Picasso's new mistress, Eva (Marcelle Humbert). But it could also point to compositional elements within the painting, to the function of flat pictorial elements that play off other flat planes or curvilinear motifs. The inclusion of lettering also produced the powerful suggestion that Cubist pictures could be read coming forward from the picture plane rather than receding (in traditional perspective) into it. And the Cubists' manipulation of the picture shape—their use of the oval, for example—redefined the edge of the work in a way that underlined the fact that in a Cubist picture the canvas provides the real space.

collage

By 1912 Picasso and Braque were gluing real paper (papier collé) and other materials (collage) onto their canvases, taking a stage further the Cubist conception of a work as a self-contained, constructed object. This Synthetic phase (1912–14) saw the reintroduction of colour, while the actual materials often had an industrial reference (e.g., sand or printed wallpaper). Still lifes and, occasionally, heads were the principal subjects for both artists. And in Picasso's works the multiple references inherent in his Synthetic compositions—curves that refer to guitars and at the same time to ears, for instance—introduce an element of play that is characteristic of so much of his work (Student with a Pipe, 1913) and lead to the suggestion that one thing becomes transformed into another. Absinthe Glass (1914; six versions), for example, is in part sculpture (cast bronze), in part collage (a real silver sugar strainer is welded onto the top), and in part painting (Neo-Impressionist brushstrokes cover planes of white paint). But the work is neither sculpture, nor collage, nor painting; planes refer to two-dimensionality, while the object indeed possesses three dimensions. The work of art thus hovers between reality and illusion.

By 1915 Picasso's life had changed and so, in a sense, had the direction of his art. At the end of that year his beloved Eva died, and the painting he had worked on during her illness (Harlequin, 1915; Museum of Modern Art, New York City) gives testimony to his grief—a half-Harlequin, half-Pierrot artist before an easel holds an unfinished canvas against a black background.

Parade

World War I dispersed Picasso's circle; Apollinaire, Braque, and others left for the front, while most of Picasso's Spanish compatriots returned to their neutral homeland. Picasso stayed in France, and from 1916 his friendship with the composer Erik Satie (Satie, Erik) took him into a new avant-garde circle that remained active during the war. The self-appointed leader of this nucleus of talents who frequented the Café de la Rotonde was the young poet Jean Cocteau (Cocteau, Jean). His idea to stage a wartime theatrical event in collaboration with Sergey Diaghilev (Diaghilev, Sergey Pavlovich)'s Ballets Russes resulted in the production of Parade, a work about a circus sideshow that incorporated imagery of the new century, such as skyscrapers and airplanes. Cocteau went to Satie for the music and then to Picasso for the sets and costumes. Work began in 1917, and although Picasso intensely disliked travel, he agreed to go with Cocteau to Rome where they joined Diaghilev and the choreographer of Parade, Léonide Massine. It was on this occasion that Picasso also met his future wife, Olga Kokhlova, among the dancers.

Parade was first performed in May 1917 at the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris, where it was considered no less than an attempt to undermine the solidarity of French culture. Satie seems to have been the principal target of abuse (partly because of his inclusion of airplane propellers and typewriters in the score), while Picasso disarmed the public with the contrast between his basically realistic stage curtain and the startling Synthetic Cubist constructions worn by the characters, the sideshow managers, in the ballet.

New Mediterraneanism

Picasso's paintings and drawings of the late teens often seem unexpectedly naturalistic in contrast to the Cubist works that preceded or sometimes coincided with them (Passeig de Colom, 1917). After his travels to Italy and a return to Barcelona in 1917 (Parade was performed there in November), a new spirit of Mediterraneanism made itself felt in his work, especially in the use of classical forms and drawing techniques. This was reinforced by a conscious looking back to Ingres (for example, in Picasso's portrait drawings of Jacob and Vollard, 1915) and to late Pierre-Auguste Renoir (Renoir, Pierre-Auguste). Even the direction of Picasso's Cubist work was affected. By clarifying planes, forms, and colour, the artist imparted to his Cubist paintings a classical expression (Saint-Raphaël still lifes, 1919; two versions of the Three Musicians, 1921).

Picasso's only legitimate child, Paulo, was born in 1921. As part of his new status as darling of the socialites (encouraged particularly by his wife and Jean Cocteau) Picasso continued his collaborations with the Ballets Russes and produced designs for Manuel de Falla's Three-Cornered Hat (1919); Igor Stravinsky's Pulcinella (1920); De Falla's Cuadro Flamenco (1921); and Satie's ballet Mercure (1924). André Breton called Picasso's designs for this ballet “tragic toys for adults” created in the spirit of Surrealism.

Surrealism

Although Picasso never became an official member of the group, he had intimate connections with the most important art movement between the two world wars, Surrealism. The Surrealist establishment, including its main propagandist, André Breton (Breton, André), claimed him as one of their own, and Picasso's art gained a new dimension from contact with his Surrealist friends, particularly the writers. Inherent in Picasso's work since the Demoiselles were many elements that the official circle advocated. The creation of monsters, for instance, could certainly be perceived in the disturbing juxtapositions and broken contours of the human figure in Cubist works; Breton specifically pointed to the strange Woman in a Chemise (1913). Moreover, the idea of reading one thing for another, an idea implicit in Synthetic Cubism, seemed to coincide with the dreamlike imagery the Surrealists championed.

What the Surrealist movement gave to Picasso were new subjects—especially erotic ones—as well as a reinforcement of disturbing elements already in his work. The many variations on the subject of bathers with their overtly sexual and contorted forms (Dinard series, 1929) show clearly the impact of Surrealism, while in other works the effect of distortion on the emotions of the spectator can also be interpreted as fulfilling one of the psychological aims of Surrealism (drawings and paintings of the Crucifixion, 1930–35). In the 1930s Picasso, like many of the Surrealist writers, often played with the idea of metamorphosis. For example, the image of the minotaur, the monster of Greek mythology—half bull and half human—that traditionally has been seen as the embodiment of the struggle between the human and the bestial, becomes in Picasso's work not only an evocation of that idea but also a kind of self-portrait.

Finally, Picasso's own brand of Surrealism found its strongest expression in poetry. He began writing poetry in 1934, and during one year, from February 1935 to the spring of 1936, Picasso virtually gave up painting. Collections of poems were published in Cahiers d'Art (1935) and in La Gaceta de Arte (1936, Tenerife), and some years later he wrote the Surrealist play Le Désir attrapé par la queue (1941, Desire Caught by the Tail).

Sculpture

Picasso's reputation as a major 20th-century sculptor came only after his death, because he had kept much of his sculpture in his own collection. Beginning in 1928, Picasso began to work in iron and sheet metal in Julio González's studio in Paris. Then, in 1931, with his new mistress, Marie-Thérèse Walter, he left his wife and moved to a country home at Boisgeloup, where he had room for sculpture studios. There, with Marie-Thérèse as his muse, Picasso began working on large-scale plaster heads. He also began to make constructions incorporating found objects, and until the end of his life Picasso continued working in sculpture in a variety of materials.

The 1930s

The privacy of his life with the undemanding Marie-Thérèse formed a contrast to the hectic pace of life kept by Olga and her bourgeois circle of society friends. Once in Boisgeloup, Picasso lived openly with Marie-Thérèse (with whom he had a child, Maya, in 1935), and she became the subject of his often lyrical, sometimes erotic paintings, in which he combined intense colour with flowing forms (Girl Before a Mirror, 1932).

Picasso never completely dissociated himself from the women who had shared his life once a new lover occupied his attention. This is evident in his work, in which one mistress often turns into another; for instance, in a private sketchbook (number 99, 1929) Picasso's portrait drawings betray his double life, for the pictures of his then secret mistress evolve into horrific images of screaming Olgas. And in 1936, while money and a certain amount of attention were given to both Olga and Marie-Thérèse, Picasso moved back to Paris and began to live with the Yugoslav photographer Dora Maar. This change in his own life coincided with a period of personal preoccupation with the Spanish Civil War, which had begun in that year.

Although Picasso never returned to his native country after a visit in 1934, his sympathies always lay with Spain (the short-lived Republican government named him honorary director of the Prado), and in early 1937 he produced a series of etchings and aquatints (Dream and Lie of Franco) to be sold in support of the Republican cause. His major contribution, of course, was the mural painting Guernica (named for the Basque town bombed in 1937 by the Fascists) commissioned by the Republican government for the Spanish pavilion at the 1937 World's Fair in Paris. As compensation Picasso was provided with a studio in Paris on rue des Grands Augustins large enough to accommodate the enormous canvas (11.5 × 25.5 feet; 3.49 × 7.77 metres). Dora Maar worked with him to complete the final work, which was realized in just over three weeks. The imagery in Guernica—the gored horse, the fallen soldier, and screaming mothers with dead babies (representing the bullfight, war, and female victims, respectively)—was employed to condemn the useless destruction of life, while at the same time the bull represented the hope of overcoming the unseen aggressor, Fascism.

World War II and after

The expressive quality of both the forms and gestures in the basically monochromatic composition of Guernica found its way into Picasso's other work, especially in the intensely coloured versions of Weeping Woman (1937) as well as in related prints and drawings, in portraits of Dora Maar and Nusch Éluard (wife of Picasso's friend, the French poet Paul Éluard), and in still lifes (Still Life with Red Bull's Head, 1938). These works led to the claustrophobic interiors and skull-like drawings (sketchbook number 110, 1940) of the war years, which Picasso spent in France with Dora Maar as well as with Jaime Sabartés, a friend of his student days in Barcelona. Thereafter Sabartés shared Picasso's life as secretary, biographer, and companion, and more often than not as the butt of endless jokes (Portrait of Jaime Sabartés, 1939; Retour de Bruxelles, sketchbook number 137, 1956).

After the war Picasso resumed exhibiting his work, which included painting and sculpture as well as work in lithography and ceramics. At the Autumn Salon (Salon d'Automne) of 1944 (“Salon de la Liberation”) Picasso's canvases and sculpture of the preceding five years were received as a shock. This plus the announcement that Picasso had just joined the Communist Party led to demonstrations against his political views in the gallery itself. At the same time Picasso opened up his studio to both new and old writer and artist friends, including Jean-Paul Sartre, Pierre Reverdy, Éluard, the photographer Brassaï, the English artist Roland Penrose, and the American photographer Lee Miller, as well as many American GI's.

Already in 1943 a young painter, Françoise Gilot, had presented herself at the studio, and within months she became the successor to Dora Maar. In 1946 Picasso moved to the Mediterranean with Gilot (with whom he was to have two children, Claude in 1947 and Paloma in 1949). First they moved to Antibes, where Picasso spent four months painting at the Château Grimaldi (Joie de Vivre, 1946). The paintings of this time and the ceramics he decorated at the studio in nearby Vallauris, beginning in 1947, vividly express Picasso's sense of identification with the classical tradition and with his Mediterranean origins. They also celebrate his new-found happiness with Gilot, who in works of this period is often nymph to Picasso's fauns and centaurs.

Ceramics

Picasso's ceramics are usually set apart from his main body of work and are treated as less important, because at first glance they seem a somewhat frivolous exercise in the decoration of ordinary objects. Plates, jugs, and vases, mostly made by craftsmen at the Madoura pottery in Vallauris, were reshaped or painted, gouged out, scratched, or marked by fingerprints, and, for the most part, were rendered useless. In turning to craft, Picasso worked with a sense of liberation, experimenting with the play between decoration and form (between two and three dimensions) and between personal and universal meaning.

During this period Picasso's fame increasingly attracted numerous visitors, including artists and writers, some of whom (Hélène Parmelin, Édouard Pignon, Éluard, and especially Louis Aragon) encouraged Picasso's further political involvement. Although he contributed designs willingly (his dove was used for the World Peace Congress poster in Wrocław, Poland, in 1949), it was not so much from a commitment to the Communists as from a sincere and lifelong sympathy with any group of repressed people. War and Peace, two panels painted in 1952 to adorn the Temple of Peace attached to an old chapel in Vallauris, reflect Picasso's personal optimism of those years.

The Picasso myth

After World War II an aura of myth grew up around the name of Picasso, and in the last decades of his life his work had, in a sense, moved beyond criticism. Although there were few critics able to keep pace with his latest work, there were few who attacked him. One exception was the British critic John Berger (The Success and Failure of Picasso, 1965), who raised questions about Picasso's economic motives and speculated about his inflated public reputation. Picasso's enormous output (especially in printing and drawing) kept his name before the public, even though his work seemed at the time to be far from mainstream, nonfigurative imagery. For example, in the series that characterized the working methods of his late years he used figurative imagery to weave a kind of narrative within each series' numerous variations.

In 1953 Françoise Gilot with their two children left Picasso, and he spent several years as a bachelor, dividing his time between Paris and his home at La Californie, near Cannes. In 1954 he had met Jacqueline Roque, who worked in the pottery shop in Vallauris, and they married in 1961; she not only became his steadfast companion, but also, as his muse, she became the principal image and source of inspiration for practically all of the late work. They are both buried in the castle at Vauvenargues, which Picasso purchased in 1958. But the years from their marriage to Picasso's death they spent at Mougins.

History of art

In his late work Picasso repeatedly turned toward the history of art for his themes. He seemed at times obsessed with the need to create variations on the works of earlier artists; thus in his many prints, drawings, and paintings of that period, reference is made to artists such as Altdorfer, Manet, Rembrandt, Delacroix, and Courbet. Repeatedly Picasso did a complete series of variations on one particular work, the most famous being perhaps the series on Las Meninas of Velázquez consisting of 58 discrete pictures. At times Picasso reworked a specific work because he identified personally with it. For example, he was attracted to Delacroix's Femmes d'Alger because the figure on the right bore resemblance to his wife. More often he seemed moved by the challenge to rework in his own way the complex pictorial and narrative problems the older artists had originally posed for themselves. In a sense Picasso was writing himself into the history of art by virtue of such an association with a number of his predecessors.

There is a renewed sense of play in the work of Picasso's later years. He transformed paper cutouts into monumental sculptures, and in Henri-Georges Clouzot's film Le Mystère Picasso (1955), the artist, the sole star, behaves like a conjurer, performing tricks with light as well as with his brush. And finally, just as he turned to the paintings of earlier masters, redoing their works in many variations, so he turned to his own earlier oeuvre, prompted by the same impulse. The circus and the artist's studio became once again the stage for his characters, among whom he often placed himself portrayed as an old acrobat or king.

Assessment

Because Picasso's art from the time of the Demoiselles was radical in nature, virtually no 20th-century artist could escape his influence. Moreover, while other masters such as Matisse or Braque tended to stay within the bounds of a style they had developed in their youth, Picasso continued to be an innovator into the last decade of his life. This led to misunderstanding and criticism both in his lifetime and since, and it was only in the 1980s that his last paintings began to be appreciated both in themselves and for their profound influence on the rising generation of young painters. Since Picasso was able from the 1920s to sell works at very high prices, he could keep most of his oeuvre in his own collection. At the time of his death he owned some 50,000 works in various media from every period of his career, which passed into possession of the French state and his heirs. Their exhibition and publication has served to reinforce the highest estimates of Picasso's astonishing powers of invention and execution over a span of more than 80 years.

Marilyn McCully

Additional Reading

Biography and criticism

Jaime Sabartés, Picasso: An Intimate Portrait, trans. from Spanish by Angel Flores (1948), is a fundamental biographical source, although many Picasso legends begin here. Picasso himself approved the biography by Antonina Vallentin, Picasso (1963). An important recent biography is John Richardson, A Life of Picasso (1991– ), two volumes of which have already been published (in 1991 and 1996, respectively). Other biographies and memoirs include Fernande Olivier, Picasso and His Friends (1964; originally published in French, 1933); Gertrude Stein, Picasso (1938, reprinted 1984); Françoise Gilot and Carlton Lake, Life with Picasso (1964, reissued 1990), which are informative and sometimes biased memoirs; Brassaï, Picasso and Company (1966, also published as Picasso & Co., 1967; originally published in French, 1964), which contains conversations with the artist; Dore Ashton (compiler), Picasso on Art: A Selection of Views (1972, reprinted 1988); Patrick O'Brian, Picasso: Pablo Ruiz Picasso: A Biography (also published as Pablo Ruiz Picasso, 1976); Pierre Daix, La Vie de peintre de Pablo Picasso (1977), which is a well-documented chronological study of his work; Roland Penrose, Picasso: His Life and Work, 3rd ed. (1981); and Josep Palau I. Fabre, Picasso, the Early Years: 1881–1907 (1981, reissued 1996; originally published in Catalan, 1980), Picasso Cubism (1907–1917), trans. from Catalan (1990, reissued 1996), and Picasso: From the Ballets to Drama (1917–1926) (1999; originally published in Catalan, 1999).More specific works of criticism are Alfred H. Barr, Jr., Picasso: Fifty Years of His Art (1945, reprinted 1980); Gert Schiff (ed.), Picasso in Perspective (1976), a collection of essays about his work; and Marilyn McCully (ed.), A Picasso Anthology: Documents, Criticism, Reminiscences (1981). Ray Anne Kibbey, Picasso: A Comprehensive Bibliography (1977), offers limited general coverage through 1976.

Catalogs

Catalogs of the artist's work in individual media include Bernhard Geiser (ed.), L'Oeuvre gravé de Picasso (1955), which examines his prints; Pierre Daix and Georges Boudaille, Picasso: The Blue and Rose Periods, rev. ed. (1967; originally published in French, 1966), which examines his early paintings; Douglas Cooper, Picasso Theatre (1968, reissued 1987; originally published in French, 1967); Christian Zervos, Pablo Picasso, 33 vol. (1932–78), a basic work that reproduces the works in black and white; Georges Bloch, Pablo Picasso, 4th ed., 4 vol. (1984), which includes printed graphic work from 1904 to 1972 and painted ceramics from 1949 to 1971; Pierre Daix and Joan Rosselet, Picasso: The Cubist Years, 1907–1916 (1979; originally published in French, 1979); Gary Tinterow, Master Drawings by Picasso (1981); Werner Spies and Christine Piot, Picasso: The Sculptures (2000; originally published in French, 2000); Sebastian Goeppert, Herma Goeppert-Frank, and Patrick Cramer, Pablo Picasso, the Illustrated Books: Catalogue Raissonné (1983; originally published in French, 1983); Arnold Glimcher and Mark Glimcher (eds.), Je Suis le Cahier: The Sketchbooks of Picasso (1986, reissued 1996); and Werner Spies, Picasso: Pastelle, Zeichnungen, Aquarelle (1986).Catalogs addressing specific themes, often in conjunction with museum exhibitions, include William Rubin (ed.), Pablo Picasso: A Retrospective (1980); Christian Geelhaar et al., Pablo Picasso: Das Spätwerk: Themen 1964–1972 (1981); Douglas Cooper and Gary Tinterow, The Essential Cubism, 1907–1920: Braque, Picasso & Their Friends (1983); Gert Schiff, Picasso: The Last Years, 1963–1973 (1983); Jürgen Glaesemer (ed.), Der Junge Picasso: Frühwerk und blaue Periode (1984); Ellen C. Oppler (ed.), Picasso's Guernica: Illustrations, Introductory Essay, Documents, Poetry, Criticism, Analysis (1988); Herschel B. Chipp, Picasso's Guernica: History, Transformations, Meanings (1988); Réunion des Musées Nationaux, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 2 vol. (1988); Musée National d'Art Moderne and Tate Gallery, Late Picasso: Paintings, Sculpture, Drawings, Prints, 1953–1972 (1988); William Rubin, Picasso and Braque: Pioneering Cubism (1989); William Rubin (ed.), Picasso and Portraiture: Representation and Transformation (1996); Elizabeth Cowling and John Golding, Picasso: Sculptor/Painter (1994); Marilyn McCully (ed.), Picasso: The Early Years, 1892–1906 (1997); Steven A. Nash and Robert Rosenblum (eds.), Picasso and the War Years, 1937–1945 (1998); and Marilyn McCully (ed.), Picasso: Painter and Sculptor in Clay (1998).Marilyn McCully

词条	Picasso, Pablo
释义	Picasso, Pablo Spanish artist Introduction in full Pablo Ruiz y Picasso born October 25, 1881, Málaga, Spain died April 8, 1973, Mougins, France Spanish expatriate painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist, and stage designer, one of the greatest and most influential artists of the 20th century and the creator (with Georges Braque) of Cubism. The enormous body of Picasso's work remains, and the legend lives on—a tribute to the vitality of the “disquieting” Spaniard with the “sombre . . . piercing” eyes who superstitiously believed that work would keep him alive. For nearly 80 of his 91 years Picasso devoted himself to an artistic production that contributed significantly to and paralleled the whole development of modern art in the 20th century. Life and career Early years Pablo Picasso was the son of José Ruiz Blasco, a professor of drawing, and Maria Picasso López. His unusual adeptness for drawing began to manifest itself early, around the age of 10, when he became his father's pupil in La Coruña, where the family moved in 1891. From that point his ability to experiment with what he learned and to develop new expressive means quickly allowed him to surpass his father's abilities. In La Coruña his father shifted his own ambitions to those of his son, providing him with models and support for his first exhibition there at the age of 13. The family moved to Barcelona in the autumn of 1895, and Pablo entered the local art academy (La Llotja), where his father had assumed his last post as professor of drawing. The family hoped that their son would achieve success as an academic painter, and in 1897 his eventual fame in Spain seemed assured; in that year his painting Science and Charity, for which his father modeled for the doctor, was awarded an honorable mention in Madrid at the Fine Arts Exhibition. The Spanish capital was the obvious next stop for the young artist intent on gaining recognition and fulfilling family expectations. Pablo Ruiz duly set off for Madrid in the autumn of 1897 and entered the Royal Academy of San Fernando. But finding the teaching there stupid, he increasingly spent his time recording life around him, in the cafés, on the streets, in the brothels, and in the Prado, where he discovered Spanish painting. He wrote: “The Museum of paintings is beautiful. Velázquez first class; from El Greco some magnificent heads, Murillo does not convince me in every one of his pictures.” Works by these and other artists would capture Picasso's imagination at different times during his long career. Goya, for instance, was an artist whose works Picasso copied in the Prado in 1898 (a portrait of the bullfighter Pepe Illo and the drawing for one of the Caprichos, Bien tirada está, which shows a Celestina 【procuress】 checking a young maja's stockings). These same characters reappear in his late work—Pepe Illo in a series of engravings (1957) and Celestina as a kind of voyeuristic self-portrait, especially in the series of etchings and engravings known as Suite 347 (1968). Picasso fell ill in the spring of 1898 and spent most of the remaining year convalescing in the Catalan village of Horta de Ebro in the company of his Barcelona friend Manuel Pallarès. When Picasso returned to Barcelona in early 1899, he was a changed man: he had put on weight, he had learned to live on his own in the open countryside, he spoke Catalan, and most importantly he had made the decision to break with his art school training and to reject his family's plans for his future. He even began to show a decided preference for his mother's surname, and more often than not he signed his works P.R. Picasso (by late 1901 he had dropped the Ruiz altogether). In Barcelona Picasso moved among a circle of Catalan artists and writers whose eyes were turned toward Paris. These were his friends at the café Els Quatre Gats (“The Four Cats,” styled after the Chat Noir 【“Black Cat”】 in Paris), where Picasso had his first Barcelona exhibition in February 1900, and they were the subjects of more than 50 portraits (in mixed media) in the show. In addition, there was a dark, moody “modernista” painting, Last Moments (later painted over), showing the visit of a priest to the bedside of a dying woman, a work that was accepted for the Spanish section of the Exposition Universelle in Paris in that year. Eager to see his own work in place and to experience Paris firsthand, Picasso set off in the company of his studio-mate Carles Casagemas (Portrait of Carles Casagemas, 1899) to conquer, if not Paris, at least a corner of Montmartre. Discovery of Paris One of Picasso's principal artistic discoveries on that trip (October–December) was colour—not the drab colours of the Spanish palette, the black of the shawls of Spanish women, or the ochres and browns of the Spanish landscape, but brilliant colour—the colour of Van Gogh, of new fashion, of a city celebrating a world's fair. Using charcoal, pastels, watercolours, and oils, Picasso recorded life in the French capital (Lovers in the Street, 1900). In Moulin de la Galette (1900) he paid tribute to French artists such as Toulouse-Lautrec and Steinlen as well as his Catalan compatriot Ramon Casas. After just two months Picasso returned to Spain with Casagemas, who had become despondent about a failed love affair. Having tried unsuccessfully to amuse his friend in Málaga, Picasso took off for Madrid, where he worked as an art editor for a new journal, Arte Joven. Casagemas returned to Paris and attempted to shoot the woman he loved, then turned the gun on himself and died. The impact on Picasso was deep: it was not just that he had lost his loyal friend and perhaps felt a sense of guilt for having abandoned him; more importantly, he had gained the emotional experience and the material that would stimulate the powerful expressiveness of the works of the so-called Blue Period. Picasso made two death portraits of Casagemas several months later in 1901 as well as two funeral scenes (Mourners and Evocation), and in 1903 Casagemas appeared as the artist in the enigmatic painting La Vie. Blue Period Between 1901 and mid-1904, when blue was the predominant colour in his paintings, Picasso moved back and forth between Barcelona and Paris, taking material for his work from one place to the other. For example, his visits to the Women's Prison of Saint-Lazare in Paris in 1901–02, which provided him with free models and compelling subject matter (The Soup, 1902), were reflected in his depictions of Barcelona street people—blind or lonely beggars and castaways in 1902–03 (Crouching Woman, 1902; Blind Man's Meal, 1903; Old Jew and a Boy, 1903). The subject of maternity (women were allowed to keep nursing children with them at the prison) also preoccupied Picasso at a time when he was searching for material that would best express traditional art-historical subjects in 20th-century terms. The move to Paris Picasso finally made the decision to move permanently to Paris in the spring of 1904, and his work reflects a change of spirit and especially a change of intellectual and artistic currents. The traveling circus and saltimbanques became a subject he shared with a new and important friend, Guillaume Apollinaire (Apollinaire, Guillaume). To both the poet and the painter these rootless wandering performers (Girl Balancing on a Ball, 1905; The Actor, 1905) became a kind of evocation of the artist's position in modern society. Picasso specifically made this identification in Family of Saltimbanques (1905), where he assumes the role of Harlequin and Apollinaire is the strongman (according to their mutual friend, the writer André Salmon). Picasso's personal circumstances also changed at the end of 1904, when Fernande Olivier became his mistress. Her presence inspired many works during the years leading up to Cubism, especially on their trip to Gosol in 1906 (Woman with Loaves), including the sculpture Head of a Woman (1909) and several paintings related to it (Woman with Pears, 1909). Colour never came easily to Picasso, and he reverted to a generally more Spanish (i.e., monochromatic) palette. The tones of the Blue Period were replaced from late 1904 to 1906 in the so-called Rose Period by those of pottery, of flesh, and of the earth itself (The Harem, 1906). Picasso seems to have been working with colour in an attempt to come closer to sculptural form, especially in 1906 (Two Nudes; La Toilette). His Portrait of Gertrude Stein (1906) and a Self-Portrait with Palette (1906) show this development as well as the influence of his discovery of primitive Iberian sculpture. Les Demoiselles d'Avignon Toward the end of 1906 Picasso began work on a large composition that came to be called Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907). His violent treatment of the female body and masklike painting of the faces (influenced by a study of African art) have made this work controversial. Yet the work was firmly based upon art-historical tradition: a renewed interest in El Greco (Greco, El) contributed to the fracturing of the space and the gestures of the figures, while the overall composition owed much to Paul Cézanne (Cézanne, Paul)'s Bathers as well as to J.-A-.D. Ingres (Ingres, J.-A.-D)'s harem scenes. The Demoiselles, however, named by Picasso's friend Max Jacob (to refer to Avignon Street in Barcelona, where sailors found popular brothels), was perceived as a shocking and direct assault: these women were not conventional images of beauty but prostitutes who challenged the very tradition from which they were born. Although he had his collectors by this date (Leo and Gertrude Stein, the Russian merchant Sergey Shchukin) and a dealer (Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler), Picasso chose to roll up the canvas of the Demoiselles and to keep it out of sight for several years. In 1908 the African-influenced striations and masklike heads were superseded by a technique that incorporated elements he and his new friend Georges Braque (Braque, Georges) found in the work of Cézanne, whose shallow space and characteristic planar brushwork are especially evident in Picasso's work of 1909. Still lifes, inspired by Cézanne, also became an important subject for the first time in Picasso's career. Cubism Picasso and Braque (Braque, Georges) worked together closely during the next few years (1909–12)—the only time Picasso ever worked with another painter in this way—and they developed what came to be known as Analytical Cubism. Early Cubist paintings were often misunderstood by critics and viewers because they were thought to be merely geometric art. Yet the painters themselves believed they were presenting a new kind of reality that broke away from Renaissance tradition, especially from the use of perspective and illusion. For example, they showed multiple views of an object on the same canvas to convey more information than could be contained in a single, limited illusionistic view. As Kahnweiler (Kahnweiler, Daniel-Henry) saw it, Cubism signified the opening up of closed form by the “re-presentation” of the form of objects and their position in space instead of their imitation through illusionistic means; and the analytic process of fracturing objects and space, light and shadow, and even colour was likened by Apollinaire to the way in which the surgeon dissects a cadaver. This type of analysis is characteristic of Picasso's work beginning in 1909, especially in the landscapes he made on a trip to Spain that summer (Factory at Horta de Ebro). These were followed in 1910 with a series of hermetic portraits (Ambroise Vollard; Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler); and in his 1911–12 paintings of seated figures, often playing musical instruments (The Accordionist, 1911), Picasso merged figures, objects, and space on a kind of grid. The palette was once again limited to monochromatic ochres, browns, and grays. Neither Braque nor Picasso desired to move into the realm of total abstraction in their Cubist works, although they implicitly accepted inconsistencies such as different points of view, different axes, and different light sources in the same picture. Furthermore, the inclusion of abstract and representational elements on the same picture plane led both artists to reexamine what two-dimensional elements, such as newspaper lettering, signified. A song title, "Ma Jolie," for instance, could point to events outside the painting; it could refer narratively to Picasso's new mistress, Eva (Marcelle Humbert). But it could also point to compositional elements within the painting, to the function of flat pictorial elements that play off other flat planes or curvilinear motifs. The inclusion of lettering also produced the powerful suggestion that Cubist pictures could be read coming forward from the picture plane rather than receding (in traditional perspective) into it. And the Cubists' manipulation of the picture shape—their use of the oval, for example—redefined the edge of the work in a way that underlined the fact that in a Cubist picture the canvas provides the real space. collage By 1912 Picasso and Braque were gluing real paper (papier collé) and other materials (collage) onto their canvases, taking a stage further the Cubist conception of a work as a self-contained, constructed object. This Synthetic phase (1912–14) saw the reintroduction of colour, while the actual materials often had an industrial reference (e.g., sand or printed wallpaper). Still lifes and, occasionally, heads were the principal subjects for both artists. And in Picasso's works the multiple references inherent in his Synthetic compositions—curves that refer to guitars and at the same time to ears, for instance—introduce an element of play that is characteristic of so much of his work (Student with a Pipe, 1913) and lead to the suggestion that one thing becomes transformed into another. Absinthe Glass (1914; six versions), for example, is in part sculpture (cast bronze), in part collage (a real silver sugar strainer is welded onto the top), and in part painting (Neo-Impressionist brushstrokes cover planes of white paint). But the work is neither sculpture, nor collage, nor painting; planes refer to two-dimensionality, while the object indeed possesses three dimensions. The work of art thus hovers between reality and illusion. By 1915 Picasso's life had changed and so, in a sense, had the direction of his art. At the end of that year his beloved Eva died, and the painting he had worked on during her illness (Harlequin, 1915; Museum of Modern Art, New York City) gives testimony to his grief—a half-Harlequin, half-Pierrot artist before an easel holds an unfinished canvas against a black background. Parade World War I dispersed Picasso's circle; Apollinaire, Braque, and others left for the front, while most of Picasso's Spanish compatriots returned to their neutral homeland. Picasso stayed in France, and from 1916 his friendship with the composer Erik Satie (Satie, Erik) took him into a new avant-garde circle that remained active during the war. The self-appointed leader of this nucleus of talents who frequented the Café de la Rotonde was the young poet Jean Cocteau (Cocteau, Jean). His idea to stage a wartime theatrical event in collaboration with Sergey Diaghilev (Diaghilev, Sergey Pavlovich)'s Ballets Russes resulted in the production of Parade, a work about a circus sideshow that incorporated imagery of the new century, such as skyscrapers and airplanes. Cocteau went to Satie for the music and then to Picasso for the sets and costumes. Work began in 1917, and although Picasso intensely disliked travel, he agreed to go with Cocteau to Rome where they joined Diaghilev and the choreographer of Parade, Léonide Massine. It was on this occasion that Picasso also met his future wife, Olga Kokhlova, among the dancers. Parade was first performed in May 1917 at the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris, where it was considered no less than an attempt to undermine the solidarity of French culture. Satie seems to have been the principal target of abuse (partly because of his inclusion of airplane propellers and typewriters in the score), while Picasso disarmed the public with the contrast between his basically realistic stage curtain and the startling Synthetic Cubist constructions worn by the characters, the sideshow managers, in the ballet. New Mediterraneanism Picasso's paintings and drawings of the late teens often seem unexpectedly naturalistic in contrast to the Cubist works that preceded or sometimes coincided with them (Passeig de Colom, 1917). After his travels to Italy and a return to Barcelona in 1917 (Parade was performed there in November), a new spirit of Mediterraneanism made itself felt in his work, especially in the use of classical forms and drawing techniques. This was reinforced by a conscious looking back to Ingres (for example, in Picasso's portrait drawings of Jacob and Vollard, 1915) and to late Pierre-Auguste Renoir (Renoir, Pierre-Auguste). Even the direction of Picasso's Cubist work was affected. By clarifying planes, forms, and colour, the artist imparted to his Cubist paintings a classical expression (Saint-Raphaël still lifes, 1919; two versions of the Three Musicians, 1921). Picasso's only legitimate child, Paulo, was born in 1921. As part of his new status as darling of the socialites (encouraged particularly by his wife and Jean Cocteau) Picasso continued his collaborations with the Ballets Russes and produced designs for Manuel de Falla's Three-Cornered Hat (1919); Igor Stravinsky's Pulcinella (1920); De Falla's Cuadro Flamenco (1921); and Satie's ballet Mercure (1924). André Breton called Picasso's designs for this ballet “tragic toys for adults” created in the spirit of Surrealism. Surrealism Although Picasso never became an official member of the group, he had intimate connections with the most important art movement between the two world wars, Surrealism. The Surrealist establishment, including its main propagandist, André Breton (Breton, André), claimed him as one of their own, and Picasso's art gained a new dimension from contact with his Surrealist friends, particularly the writers. Inherent in Picasso's work since the Demoiselles were many elements that the official circle advocated. The creation of monsters, for instance, could certainly be perceived in the disturbing juxtapositions and broken contours of the human figure in Cubist works; Breton specifically pointed to the strange Woman in a Chemise (1913). Moreover, the idea of reading one thing for another, an idea implicit in Synthetic Cubism, seemed to coincide with the dreamlike imagery the Surrealists championed. What the Surrealist movement gave to Picasso were new subjects—especially erotic ones—as well as a reinforcement of disturbing elements already in his work. The many variations on the subject of bathers with their overtly sexual and contorted forms (Dinard series, 1929) show clearly the impact of Surrealism, while in other works the effect of distortion on the emotions of the spectator can also be interpreted as fulfilling one of the psychological aims of Surrealism (drawings and paintings of the Crucifixion, 1930–35). In the 1930s Picasso, like many of the Surrealist writers, often played with the idea of metamorphosis. For example, the image of the minotaur, the monster of Greek mythology—half bull and half human—that traditionally has been seen as the embodiment of the struggle between the human and the bestial, becomes in Picasso's work not only an evocation of that idea but also a kind of self-portrait. Finally, Picasso's own brand of Surrealism found its strongest expression in poetry. He began writing poetry in 1934, and during one year, from February 1935 to the spring of 1936, Picasso virtually gave up painting. Collections of poems were published in Cahiers d'Art (1935) and in La Gaceta de Arte (1936, Tenerife), and some years later he wrote the Surrealist play Le Désir attrapé par la queue (1941, Desire Caught by the Tail). Sculpture Picasso's reputation as a major 20th-century sculptor came only after his death, because he had kept much of his sculpture in his own collection. Beginning in 1928, Picasso began to work in iron and sheet metal in Julio González's studio in Paris. Then, in 1931, with his new mistress, Marie-Thérèse Walter, he left his wife and moved to a country home at Boisgeloup, where he had room for sculpture studios. There, with Marie-Thérèse as his muse, Picasso began working on large-scale plaster heads. He also began to make constructions incorporating found objects, and until the end of his life Picasso continued working in sculpture in a variety of materials. The 1930s The privacy of his life with the undemanding Marie-Thérèse formed a contrast to the hectic pace of life kept by Olga and her bourgeois circle of society friends. Once in Boisgeloup, Picasso lived openly with Marie-Thérèse (with whom he had a child, Maya, in 1935), and she became the subject of his often lyrical, sometimes erotic paintings, in which he combined intense colour with flowing forms (Girl Before a Mirror, 1932). Picasso never completely dissociated himself from the women who had shared his life once a new lover occupied his attention. This is evident in his work, in which one mistress often turns into another; for instance, in a private sketchbook (number 99, 1929) Picasso's portrait drawings betray his double life, for the pictures of his then secret mistress evolve into horrific images of screaming Olgas. And in 1936, while money and a certain amount of attention were given to both Olga and Marie-Thérèse, Picasso moved back to Paris and began to live with the Yugoslav photographer Dora Maar. This change in his own life coincided with a period of personal preoccupation with the Spanish Civil War, which had begun in that year. Although Picasso never returned to his native country after a visit in 1934, his sympathies always lay with Spain (the short-lived Republican government named him honorary director of the Prado), and in early 1937 he produced a series of etchings and aquatints (Dream and Lie of Franco) to be sold in support of the Republican cause. His major contribution, of course, was the mural painting Guernica (named for the Basque town bombed in 1937 by the Fascists) commissioned by the Republican government for the Spanish pavilion at the 1937 World's Fair in Paris. As compensation Picasso was provided with a studio in Paris on rue des Grands Augustins large enough to accommodate the enormous canvas (11.5 × 25.5 feet; 3.49 × 7.77 metres). Dora Maar worked with him to complete the final work, which was realized in just over three weeks. The imagery in Guernica—the gored horse, the fallen soldier, and screaming mothers with dead babies (representing the bullfight, war, and female victims, respectively)—was employed to condemn the useless destruction of life, while at the same time the bull represented the hope of overcoming the unseen aggressor, Fascism. World War II and after The expressive quality of both the forms and gestures in the basically monochromatic composition of Guernica found its way into Picasso's other work, especially in the intensely coloured versions of Weeping Woman (1937) as well as in related prints and drawings, in portraits of Dora Maar and Nusch Éluard (wife of Picasso's friend, the French poet Paul Éluard), and in still lifes (Still Life with Red Bull's Head, 1938). These works led to the claustrophobic interiors and skull-like drawings (sketchbook number 110, 1940) of the war years, which Picasso spent in France with Dora Maar as well as with Jaime Sabartés, a friend of his student days in Barcelona. Thereafter Sabartés shared Picasso's life as secretary, biographer, and companion, and more often than not as the butt of endless jokes (Portrait of Jaime Sabartés, 1939; Retour de Bruxelles, sketchbook number 137, 1956). After the war Picasso resumed exhibiting his work, which included painting and sculpture as well as work in lithography and ceramics. At the Autumn Salon (Salon d'Automne) of 1944 (“Salon de la Liberation”) Picasso's canvases and sculpture of the preceding five years were received as a shock. This plus the announcement that Picasso had just joined the Communist Party led to demonstrations against his political views in the gallery itself. At the same time Picasso opened up his studio to both new and old writer and artist friends, including Jean-Paul Sartre, Pierre Reverdy, Éluard, the photographer Brassaï, the English artist Roland Penrose, and the American photographer Lee Miller, as well as many American GI's. Already in 1943 a young painter, Françoise Gilot, had presented herself at the studio, and within months she became the successor to Dora Maar. In 1946 Picasso moved to the Mediterranean with Gilot (with whom he was to have two children, Claude in 1947 and Paloma in 1949). First they moved to Antibes, where Picasso spent four months painting at the Château Grimaldi (Joie de Vivre, 1946). The paintings of this time and the ceramics he decorated at the studio in nearby Vallauris, beginning in 1947, vividly express Picasso's sense of identification with the classical tradition and with his Mediterranean origins. They also celebrate his new-found happiness with Gilot, who in works of this period is often nymph to Picasso's fauns and centaurs. Ceramics Picasso's ceramics are usually set apart from his main body of work and are treated as less important, because at first glance they seem a somewhat frivolous exercise in the decoration of ordinary objects. Plates, jugs, and vases, mostly made by craftsmen at the Madoura pottery in Vallauris, were reshaped or painted, gouged out, scratched, or marked by fingerprints, and, for the most part, were rendered useless. In turning to craft, Picasso worked with a sense of liberation, experimenting with the play between decoration and form (between two and three dimensions) and between personal and universal meaning. During this period Picasso's fame increasingly attracted numerous visitors, including artists and writers, some of whom (Hélène Parmelin, Édouard Pignon, Éluard, and especially Louis Aragon) encouraged Picasso's further political involvement. Although he contributed designs willingly (his dove was used for the World Peace Congress poster in Wrocław, Poland, in 1949), it was not so much from a commitment to the Communists as from a sincere and lifelong sympathy with any group of repressed people. War and Peace, two panels painted in 1952 to adorn the Temple of Peace attached to an old chapel in Vallauris, reflect Picasso's personal optimism of those years. The Picasso myth After World War II an aura of myth grew up around the name of Picasso, and in the last decades of his life his work had, in a sense, moved beyond criticism. Although there were few critics able to keep pace with his latest work, there were few who attacked him. One exception was the British critic John Berger (The Success and Failure of Picasso, 1965), who raised questions about Picasso's economic motives and speculated about his inflated public reputation. Picasso's enormous output (especially in printing and drawing) kept his name before the public, even though his work seemed at the time to be far from mainstream, nonfigurative imagery. For example, in the series that characterized the working methods of his late years he used figurative imagery to weave a kind of narrative within each series' numerous variations. In 1953 Françoise Gilot with their two children left Picasso, and he spent several years as a bachelor, dividing his time between Paris and his home at La Californie, near Cannes. In 1954 he had met Jacqueline Roque, who worked in the pottery shop in Vallauris, and they married in 1961; she not only became his steadfast companion, but also, as his muse, she became the principal image and source of inspiration for practically all of the late work. They are both buried in the castle at Vauvenargues, which Picasso purchased in 1958. But the years from their marriage to Picasso's death they spent at Mougins. History of art In his late work Picasso repeatedly turned toward the history of art for his themes. He seemed at times obsessed with the need to create variations on the works of earlier artists; thus in his many prints, drawings, and paintings of that period, reference is made to artists such as Altdorfer, Manet, Rembrandt, Delacroix, and Courbet. Repeatedly Picasso did a complete series of variations on one particular work, the most famous being perhaps the series on Las Meninas of Velázquez consisting of 58 discrete pictures. At times Picasso reworked a specific work because he identified personally with it. For example, he was attracted to Delacroix's Femmes d'Alger because the figure on the right bore resemblance to his wife. More often he seemed moved by the challenge to rework in his own way the complex pictorial and narrative problems the older artists had originally posed for themselves. In a sense Picasso was writing himself into the history of art by virtue of such an association with a number of his predecessors. There is a renewed sense of play in the work of Picasso's later years. He transformed paper cutouts into monumental sculptures, and in Henri-Georges Clouzot's film Le Mystère Picasso (1955), the artist, the sole star, behaves like a conjurer, performing tricks with light as well as with his brush. And finally, just as he turned to the paintings of earlier masters, redoing their works in many variations, so he turned to his own earlier oeuvre, prompted by the same impulse. The circus and the artist's studio became once again the stage for his characters, among whom he often placed himself portrayed as an old acrobat or king. Assessment Because Picasso's art from the time of the Demoiselles was radical in nature, virtually no 20th-century artist could escape his influence. Moreover, while other masters such as Matisse or Braque tended to stay within the bounds of a style they had developed in their youth, Picasso continued to be an innovator into the last decade of his life. This led to misunderstanding and criticism both in his lifetime and since, and it was only in the 1980s that his last paintings began to be appreciated both in themselves and for their profound influence on the rising generation of young painters. Since Picasso was able from the 1920s to sell works at very high prices, he could keep most of his oeuvre in his own collection. At the time of his death he owned some 50,000 works in various media from every period of his career, which passed into possession of the French state and his heirs. Their exhibition and publication has served to reinforce the highest estimates of Picasso's astonishing powers of invention and execution over a span of more than 80 years. Marilyn McCully Additional Reading Biography and criticism Jaime Sabartés, Picasso: An Intimate Portrait, trans. from Spanish by Angel Flores (1948), is a fundamental biographical source, although many Picasso legends begin here. Picasso himself approved the biography by Antonina Vallentin, Picasso (1963). An important recent biography is John Richardson, A Life of Picasso (1991– ), two volumes of which have already been published (in 1991 and 1996, respectively). Other biographies and memoirs include Fernande Olivier, Picasso and His Friends (1964; originally published in French, 1933); Gertrude Stein, Picasso (1938, reprinted 1984); Françoise Gilot and Carlton Lake, Life with Picasso (1964, reissued 1990), which are informative and sometimes biased memoirs; Brassaï, Picasso and Company (1966, also published as Picasso & Co., 1967; originally published in French, 1964), which contains conversations with the artist; Dore Ashton (compiler), Picasso on Art: A Selection of Views (1972, reprinted 1988); Patrick O'Brian, Picasso: Pablo Ruiz Picasso: A Biography (also published as Pablo Ruiz Picasso, 1976); Pierre Daix, La Vie de peintre de Pablo Picasso (1977), which is a well-documented chronological study of his work; Roland Penrose, Picasso: His Life and Work, 3rd ed. (1981); and Josep Palau I. Fabre, Picasso, the Early Years: 1881–1907 (1981, reissued 1996; originally published in Catalan, 1980), Picasso Cubism (1907–1917), trans. from Catalan (1990, reissued 1996), and Picasso: From the Ballets to Drama (1917–1926) (1999; originally published in Catalan, 1999).More specific works of criticism are Alfred H. Barr, Jr., Picasso: Fifty Years of His Art (1945, reprinted 1980); Gert Schiff (ed.), Picasso in Perspective (1976), a collection of essays about his work; and Marilyn McCully (ed.), A Picasso Anthology: Documents, Criticism, Reminiscences (1981). Ray Anne Kibbey, Picasso: A Comprehensive Bibliography (1977), offers limited general coverage through 1976. Catalogs Catalogs of the artist's work in individual media include Bernhard Geiser (ed.), L'Oeuvre gravé de Picasso (1955), which examines his prints; Pierre Daix and Georges Boudaille, Picasso: The Blue and Rose Periods, rev. ed. (1967; originally published in French, 1966), which examines his early paintings; Douglas Cooper, Picasso Theatre (1968, reissued 1987; originally published in French, 1967); Christian Zervos, Pablo Picasso, 33 vol. (1932–78), a basic work that reproduces the works in black and white; Georges Bloch, Pablo Picasso, 4th ed., 4 vol. (1984), which includes printed graphic work from 1904 to 1972 and painted ceramics from 1949 to 1971; Pierre Daix and Joan Rosselet, Picasso: The Cubist Years, 1907–1916 (1979; originally published in French, 1979); Gary Tinterow, Master Drawings by Picasso (1981); Werner Spies and Christine Piot, Picasso: The Sculptures (2000; originally published in French, 2000); Sebastian Goeppert, Herma Goeppert-Frank, and Patrick Cramer, Pablo Picasso, the Illustrated Books: Catalogue Raissonné (1983; originally published in French, 1983); Arnold Glimcher and Mark Glimcher (eds.), Je Suis le Cahier: The Sketchbooks of Picasso (1986, reissued 1996); and Werner Spies, Picasso: Pastelle, Zeichnungen, Aquarelle (1986).Catalogs addressing specific themes, often in conjunction with museum exhibitions, include William Rubin (ed.), Pablo Picasso: A Retrospective (1980); Christian Geelhaar et al., Pablo Picasso: Das Spätwerk: Themen 1964–1972 (1981); Douglas Cooper and Gary Tinterow, The Essential Cubism, 1907–1920: Braque, Picasso & Their Friends (1983); Gert Schiff, Picasso: The Last Years, 1963–1973 (1983); Jürgen Glaesemer (ed.), Der Junge Picasso: Frühwerk und blaue Periode (1984); Ellen C. Oppler (ed.), Picasso's Guernica: Illustrations, Introductory Essay, Documents, Poetry, Criticism, Analysis (1988); Herschel B. Chipp, Picasso's Guernica: History, Transformations, Meanings (1988); Réunion des Musées Nationaux, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 2 vol. (1988); Musée National d'Art Moderne and Tate Gallery, Late Picasso: Paintings, Sculpture, Drawings, Prints, 1953–1972 (1988); William Rubin, Picasso and Braque: Pioneering Cubism (1989); William Rubin (ed.), Picasso and Portraiture: Representation and Transformation (1996); Elizabeth Cowling and John Golding, Picasso: Sculptor/Painter (1994); Marilyn McCully (ed.), Picasso: The Early Years, 1892–1906 (1997); Steven A. Nash and Robert Rosenblum (eds.), Picasso and the War Years, 1937–1945 (1998); and Marilyn McCully (ed.), Picasso: Painter and Sculptor in Clay (1998).Marilyn McCully
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