literary works of the Caribbean area written in Spanish, French, or English. The literature of the Caribbean has no indigenous tradition. The pre-Columbian American Indians left few rock carvings or inscriptions (petroglyphs), and their oral traditions did not survive 16th-century Spanish colonization. The West Africans who replaced them were also without a written tradition, so that for about 400 years Caribbean literature was an offshoot and imitation of the models of the colonial powers—Spain, France, Great Britain, and The Netherlands. Caribbean writers, however, were not unaware of their environment. The letters and speeches of Toussaint-Louverture, the Haitian general and liberator, indicate that from at least the end of the 18th century the Caribbean was conscious of its cultural identity. It was not until the 1920s, however, that the challenge of a distinctive literary form was accepted. Then, as part of Spanish-American Modernism, Spanish and French Caribbean writers began to break away from European ideals and to identify themselves with their fellow West Indians, most of whom were black.

The leaders of this movement, mainly poets, were Luis Palés Matos (Puerto Rico), Jacques Roumain (Haiti), Nicolás Guillén (Cuba), Léon Damas (French Guiana), and Aimé Césaire (Martinique). Jean Price-Mars (Price Mars, Jean), a Haitian ethnologist, in Ainsi parla l'oncle (1928; “Thus Spoke the Uncle”), declared that his purpose was to “restore to the Haitian people the dignity of their folklore.” The achievement of this Negritude, finely expressed in Césaire's (Césaire, Aimé) poem Cahier d'un retour au pays natal (1939; Return to My Native Land), was the construction into poetic forms of the rhythmic and tonal elements of the islands' rituals and speech patterns, using Symbolist and Surrealist techniques.

The British Caribbean, developing its national literature after 1945, made its own contribution in the folk dialect novel: Vic Reid's New Day (1949), Samuel Selvon's A Brighter Sun (1952) and The Lonely Londoners (1956), George Lamming's In the Castle of My Skin (1953), and V.S. Naipaul's Mystic Masseur (1957) and A House for Mr. Biswas (1961), among others; and in the poetry of Louise Bennett (Jamaica Labrish, 1966). Paradoxically, anglophone Caribbean development was formally conservative, working toward an “open” rather than an autochthonous, or indigenous, expression in the work of C.L.R. James (Trinidad) and the poetry of Derek Walcott (St. Lucia). In the novels of Wilson Harris (Guyana), the Symbolist and Surrealist techniques of the Modernist movement reappear; and the poetry of Edward Brathwaite (Rights of Passage 【1967】, Masks 【1968】, Islands 【1969】) attempts to reassert the place of Africa in the Caribbean.