grand duke of Baden, a conscientious and liberal ruler who made his territories into a model of prosperity and effective government through his reforms based on the ideas of the Enlightenment.

Charles Frederick succeeded to the margravate of Baden-Durlach in 1746, and his reforms soon attracted attention throughout Germany and Europe. He emancipated the peasantry, eliminated torture, and separated insane asylums from prisons. He also established schools and encouraged agriculture, industry, and handicrafts. A truly enlightened ruler, he met and corresponded with such men as Goethe, Voltaire, and the botanist Carolus Linnaeus.

Charles Frederick opposed Revolutionary France but was forced to sign a truce with it. As a result, he saw his territories enlarged and became grand duke in 1806. His last great legal reform was the introduction of the Code Napoléon into his lands.