Chaumette went to sea as a cabin boy, studied botany, traveled widely in France, and then settled in Paris as a medical student by 1790. As an active Revolutionary he signed the petition (July 17, 1791) that demanded the abdication of Louis XVI. From December 1792 he was procurator-general of the Paris Commune, in which capacity he improved conditions in the hospitals; organized decent burial for the poor; and forbade whipping in the schools, prostitution, obscene publications, and lotteries.

Strenuously anti-Catholic, he organized the first ceremony of the worship of Reason (personified by an actress) in Notre-Dame Cathedral (November 10, 1793). His order to close the Paris churches (November 23, 1793) remained effective despite the attempted intervention of Maximilien Robespierre. Also that month Chaumette persuaded the Commune to ban women's participation in political debates and demonstrations, while denouncing such actions as contrary to nature. His antipathy to the Girondins may have caused the leaders of the Reign of Terror to fear him as a potential leader of the sansculottes (lowest classes). Although he had not aided the advocate of sansculotte insurrection, Jacques-René Hébert, Chaumette was arrested and executed after the Hébertists were suppressed in March 1794.