“São Tomé and Príncipe”的意思、由来-百科全书

São Tomé and Príncipe

Introduction

Sao Tome and Principe, flag of

country of central Africa, located on the Equator in the Gulf of Guinea (Guinea, Gulf of). It consists of two main islands (São Tomé and Príncipe) and several rocky islets, including Rôlas, south of São Tomé island, and Caroço, Pedras, and Tinhosas, south of Príncipe.

Land (São Tomé and Príncipe)

São Tomé, which is oval in shape, is larger than Príncipe, which lies about 90 miles (145 km) northeast of its sister island. The capital of the country, São Tomé city, is situated in the northeastern part of São Tomé island. The country's closest neighbours are Gabon and Equatorial Guinea on the Atlantic coast of central Africa.

Relief and drainage

In the south and west of both islands, high volcanic mountains fall precipitously to the sea, although neither island has witnessed any volcanic activity in recent centuries. The mountains descend gradually to small plains in the northeast. São Tomé Peak, the highest point on the main island, rises to 6,640 feet (2,024 metres) above sea level, and Príncipe Peak on the smaller island reaches 3,110 feet (948 metres). These mountainous areas are deeply dissected by stream erosion, and spectacular isolated volcanic plugs stand out as landmarks. Swift and rocky streams rush down to the coast in every direction.

Climate

The climate is basically maritime and tropical, but, because of the rough topography, there is a wide range of microclimates. The prevailing moist southwesterly winds are intercepted by the mountains, so annual rainfall exceeds 275 inches (7,000 mm) in the southwestern part of São Tomé island, while the far northeast receives less than 30 inches (760 mm). The dry season, called gravana, lasts from June to September in the northeast but is scarcely discernible in the wetter regions. In the coastal areas the mean annual temperature is high, in the low 80s F (upper 20s C); the average relative humidity is also high, about 80 percent. Average temperatures decline sharply with elevation, and night temperatures fall below 50 °F (10 °C) at about 2,300 feet (700 metres). Above 3,300 feet (1,000 metres) fine misty rain falls almost continuously and the nights are cold, although frost and snow are unknown.

Plant and animal life

The original vegetation of the islands was luxuriant tropical rainforest, with a gradual transition from lowland forest to mist forest. Some of the islands' area, mainly in the south and west, is still covered with rainforest. Much of this is secondary growth on abandoned plantation land. The flora and fauna include many rare and endemic species, reflecting the isolation and environmental diversity of the islands. Birds such as the ibis, shrike, and grosbeak can be found in São Tomé and Príncipe. Many of the plants, birds, reptiles, and small mammals are threatened by pressure on the remaining rainforest.

People (São Tomé and Príncipe)

Ethnic groups

The population consists mainly of Forros (from forro, Portuguese for “free man”), descendants of immigrant Europeans and African slaves. Another group, the Angolares, descended from runaway Angolan slaves who were shipwrecked on São Tomé about 1540. The Angolares remained apart in the isolated southern zone of São Tomé island until the late 19th century, but they later spread throughout the country and became largely assimilated. Cape Verdeans (Cape Verde) form the largest group of resident foreigners; many have adopted São Toméan nationality. Angolans (Angola) and Mozambicans (Mozambique) make up most of the rest of the African immigrant community. Like the Cape Verdeans, they are relatively well integrated with the other islanders, because of a shared Luso-African cultural background. There is a small European population—primarily Portuguese—in the country.

Languages

Standard Portuguese (Portuguese language) is the official language and is understood by virtually all islanders. In addition, three Portuguese-based creoles are spoken: Sãotomense, spoken by the Forros and having by far the largest number of speakers; Angolar, the language of the Angolares, spoken on the southern tip of São Tomé; and Principense, spoken by only a few hundred individuals on Príncipe.

Religion

About four-fifths of the population belongs to the Roman Catholic Church. The remainder of the population is primarily Protestant, although there is a small percentage of Muslims. Traditional African religious practices and beliefs are widespread, even among adherents of other faiths.

Settlement patterns

The population is concentrated in the drier and flatter areas of both islands. Whereas a third of the inhabitants live in São Tomé city and its outskirts, only about 5 percent live on the island of Príncipe. Many people live in dispersed settlements known locally as lucháns. Houses made of wooden planks and raised above the ground are typical of the local building methods, although there are also many concrete structures in the Portuguese colonial style. Many people still live in barracklike accommodations on the plantations.

Demographic trends

Population growth is above the world average but below the average for sub-Saharan Africa. About two-fifths of the population is less than 15 years of age, and almost another one-third is younger than 30, assuring continued rapid growth. Life expectancy in the early 21st century was more than 65 years of age, relatively high for an African country and close to the world average.

Economy

Decades of colonial stagnation were followed by economic disruption after independence in 1975. Under the tutelage of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank since the mid-1980s, São Tomé and Príncipe has tried to restore a functioning economy by devaluing its currency, reducing the budget deficit, privatizing formerly nationalized companies, attracting foreign investment, and removing price subsidies and controls. Despite all efforts and considerable inflows of foreign funds, however, the results of the imposed reforms did not match the original targets. During that time corruption became rampant, and mass poverty increased tremendously. In the late 1990s, IMF measures helped the country's economy improve considerably, as did the advent of petroleum concessions sales, which continued into the 21st century.

São Tomé and Príncipe's economy has historically been dependent on agriculture, and much of the total agricultural area of the two islands belongs to the state. Until 1993 this land was divided into 15 large plantation enterprises, but, by the end of the decade, most of the former plantations were dissolved and their land distributed to smallholders and medium-sized enterprises on a usufruct basis as part of attempted agricultural reform. High levels of unemployment coexist with a critical labour shortage on the former plantations, where wages and working conditions are poor.

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing

São Tomé is endowed with excellent conditions for tropical agriculture. The growing season is long, the volcanic soils are fertile, and there is no lack of water. Consequently, the economy remains dependent on plantation agriculture, especially cacao (grown for its seeds, cocoa beans). About two-fifths of the total land area is under cultivation, with cacao trees covering a little less than two-thirds of the cultivated land; coconut palms cover most of the remainder. Large areas of plantation land have been poorly maintained since independence; they are harvested from time to time but not otherwise tended. The country has never been self-sufficient in staple foodstuffs, and a combination of local eating habits, the legacy of the plantation economy, and foreign food aid has undermined the production of food crops for the local market.

Fine stands of timber remain in the mountains, but the difficulty of removing logs from the steep terrain and the pressing need for effective conservation limit long-term prospects. The country's small size prevents farmers from keeping large herds of livestock, but conditions for poultry raising are quite favourable.

Fishing resources are limited by the narrow continental shelf. The domestic demand for fish (commercial fishing) exceeds supply by the local artisan fishermen, and trawlers from European Union countries pay small license fees for the right to fish in the country's national waters. The deep-sea tuna resources of the Gulf of Guinea and shellfish in coastal waters represent the best hopes for fishery exports.

Resources and power

There are numerous sites for small hydroelectric schemes but no large rivers for major installations. The islands have no known mineral resources, but the country claims an area of the Gulf of Guinea that may have considerable deepwater hydrocarbon reserves; in the late 1990s and early 2000s this potential attracted foreign investors who purchased exploration concessions. In 2001 São Tomé and Príncipe and Nigeria reached an agreement to oversee the exploration and development of potential oil (petroleum) fields in the Joint Development Zone (JDZ), an area of overlapping maritime boundaries about 125 miles (200 km) from the Nigerian coast. The agreement was renegotiated in 2003, after which oil companies began bidding for the right to develop sections within the JDZ. The first exploratory drilling in the JDZ began in 2006.

Manufacturing

Manufacturing, which accounts for a tiny fraction of the gross domestic product, is hampered by the small size of the domestic market, limited energy resources, and the lack of skilled labour. It consists mainly of small processing factories producing foodstuffs, beverages, soap products, bricks, and sawn wood for the domestic market.

Finance and trade

São Tomé and Príncipe is reputed to be the recipient of one of the highest amounts of foreign aid per capita in the world, but this has not prevented large budgetary and balance-of-payment deficits. There are several commercial banks active in the country, and the Central Bank of São Tomé and Príncipe controls foreign exchange dealings and issues the country's currency, the dobra. Cocoa (cacao), despite decreasing production, still accounts for almost all foreign exchange earnings from merchandise exports. Most of the cocoa is exported to The Netherlands. Portugal is the main source of imports.

Services

Tourism is largely limited to the dry season and chiefly attracts individual travelers from Portugal and other European countries. The tourism sector has the potential to be a strong source of economic diversification for the country. The sector has expanded with some foreign investment, but development has been hindered by such obstacles as the presence of tropical diseases (notably malaria), the lengthy wet season, and the expense of traveling to the country.

Transportation and telecommunications

Transportation assumes particular importance in this isolated microstate. There are no deepwater harbours, and large ships must anchor far out at sea and be unloaded by barge. Shipping links between the islands and with the outside world are erratic, and there are long delays in unloading cargo. The country's primary ports are at São Tomé city and Neves, both on São Tomé island. The international airport near São Tomé city has been expanded and modernized. The telephone system and road network are both fairly good by African standards. Mobile phone use is very popular on the islands, and Internet service is available.

Government and society

Constitutional framework

Under the constitution of 1990 (since amended), the president, who is head of state, is directly elected to a five-year term and is limited to two successive terms. The prime minister serves as the head of government. The legislature is unicameral, with a 55-seat National Assembly. Assembly members are elected by popular vote and serve four-year terms. In April 1995 Príncipe became an autonomous region.

The political and judicial structures adopted at independence in 1975 were those of a single-party state modeled on the Soviet example, but the regime never formally proclaimed its adherence to Marxism-Leninism. Free elections for the legislative assembly and the presidency were established by the constitution of 1990 and first held in 1991. At that time close ties with eastern European countries and Cuba were replaced by improved relations with Portugal, France, and other Western countries.

Security

São Tomé and Príncipe's military is small and consists of army, coast guard, and presidential guard contingents. The country's armed forces have received technical and training assistance from such countries as Portugal, Angola, and the United States.

Health and welfare

There is one major medical centre for the country, in São Tomé city, which was created by uniting three existing hospitals, several public health posts, and a few private clinics. Malaria is endemic, although initiatives to curb the disease have shown progress since 2000. HIV/AIDS (AIDS) is present in the country, but its prevalence remains undetermined, as the stigma attached to being diagnosed with the disease and the subsequent lack of accurate reporting make the rate of infection difficult to monitor.

Education

Almost all children attend primary school, which is compulsory for four years. Secondary education consists of two cycles of four and three years, respectively, but secondary schooling opportunities are not as widely available, and fewer students enroll. Vocational training and higher education options are limited, although there is a polytechnic institute (founded 1997), and Portugal's Lusíada University opened a campus on São Tomé island in 2006. Some four-fifths of the adult population is literate.

Cultural life

Cultural milieu

This small country has a homogeneous creole culture, profoundly marked by centuries of blending elements of the dominant Roman Catholic Portuguese culture with various African influences. The kinship system is bilateral, although men traditionally have been polygynous (polygyny). With the virtual absence of monogamous marriage, the conjugal system is characterized by a high incidence of multiple and serial customary unions and visiting relationships; as a result, about one-third of households are headed by females. Despite more than 500 years of Roman Catholicism, local practices have been restricted largely to baptism and a few rites, such as processions and funerals. Various traditional African practices and beliefs have always coexisted with Roman Catholicism.

The lexicon of the three local creole languages is predominantly derived from Portuguese, whereas their phonology and syntax stem from African languages. Many African elements have been adopted in the cooking, customs, and beliefs of much of the population, and most people of lower socioeconomic status speak only creole in daily life. Famous examples of cultural creolization are the plays The Tragic Story of the Marquis of Mântua and Emperor Charlemagne (known as Tchiloli on São Tomé island) and Auto da Floripes, popular on Príncipe island, both of which are based on 16th-century Portuguese dramas.

Sports and recreation

Football (football (soccer)) (soccer) has always been the most popular sport in the country. The first local association was founded in 1931, and a national federation was created in 1977, two years after independence. In the late 1990s the country contained some two dozen clubs competing in two divisions. The clubs of the first division compete annually for the national championship, and there is also a national cup competition. Local competitions comprising all existing sports are held annually on March 12, the National Sports Festival Day. São Tomé and Príncipe first participated in the Olympic Games in 1996, when the Summer Games were held in Atlanta.

Media and publishing

Several local newspapers appear erratically, but the government-run radio and television stations provide consistent programming, and broadcasts from Portugal and France are locally retransmitted on FM channels.

History

This discussion focuses on São Tomé and Príncipe since the late 15th century. For a treatment of the country in its regional context, see Central Africa.

Portuguese colonial rule

São Tomé and Príncipe were uninhabited when they were discovered, about 1470, by Portuguese navigators. In the late 15th century the Portuguese sent out settlers (including many convicts and Jewish children who had been separated from their parents and expelled from Portugal) and brought African slaves (slavery) to the islands to grow sugar.

During the 16th century São Tomé was for a brief time the world's largest producer of sugar, but the rise of Brazilian competition and the poor quality of São Tomé's badly dried product virtually destroyed this industry. The economic decline was accentuated by social instability as slaves escaped to the mountains and raided the plantations. Amador, the self-proclaimed king of the slaves who nearly overran the whole island of São Tomé in 1595, is now regarded by many as a national hero. Foreign pirates were another hazard, and the Dutch briefly captured São Tomé in 1641, only to be expelled seven years later.

After the collapse of the sugar economy, the colony served as an entrepôt for the Portuguese slave trade to Brazil; the cargoes of small slave ships were transferred to larger vessels for the Atlantic voyage, and provisions such as water were obtained. The islanders produced food crops for these ships and for themselves. Because of the frequent political unrest in São Tomé, the capital was moved in 1753 to Santo António on Príncipe, whose harbour was the site of much activity. In 1778 the Portuguese ceded the islands of Fernando Pó (Bioko) (Bioko) and Annobón (Pagalu) (Annobón), on either side of São Tomé and Príncipe, to the Spaniards, who wished to develop their own African slave trade.

The independence of Brazil in 1822, the suppression of the slave trade in the Portuguese territories, and the introduction of coffee and cacao (the source of cocoa beans) cultivation in the 19th century shifted the economic centre of gravity back to São Tomé, and in 1852 São Tomé city once again became the capital. Cacao replaced coffee as the main cash crop in the 1890s, and during the first two decades of the 20th century the colony was in some years the world's largest producer of the commodity. This led to the maximum expansion of the plantations on the islands. When slavery was legally abolished in 1875, the Portuguese recruited contract workers from such places as Angola, Cape Verde, and Mozambique. However, until 1910 the living and working conditions of these indentured labourers often were little different from slavery.

Cocoa production fell after World War I, and the islands became isolated and notorious for the brutality and corruption that reigned on the plantations belonging to absentee planters and corporations. Attempts to force the local Forros to work on the plantations led to the Batepá Massacre in 1953, an event later often cited by São Toméans in their demands for independence as an example of the violence under Portuguese rule. The Committee for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe was set up in exile in 1960; it changed its name to the Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe (MLSTP) in 1972. However, it consisted of only a small group of exiles, who were unable to mount a guerrilla challenge to the Portuguese on the islands.

The government that took power in Portugal after a coup in 1974 agreed to hand over power to the MLSTP in 1975, and virtually all Portuguese colonists fled to Portugal, fearing an independent black and communist government. Independence was granted on July 12, 1975.

After independence

The country's first president, Manuel Pinto da Costa of the MLSTP, was elected in 1975. The government initially followed eastern European models of political and economic organization. Economic decline and popular dissatisfaction, however, led to a process of liberalization that started in 1985 and culminated in the establishment of a multiparty democracy in 1990.

Pinto da Costa was succeeded in 1991 by Miguel Trovoada, a former prime minister who ran for the presidency unopposed in the first free elections in the country's history. In August 1995 Trovoada was deposed in a bloodless coup orchestrated by the military. However, coup leaders reconsidered their demands when faced with the immediate threat of the loss of foreign aid, and Trovoada was reinstated as president a week later.

Trovoada was reelected in 1996 but was barred from seeking a third term in the 2001 election. He was succeeded by businessman Fradique de Menezes of the Independent Democratic Action (ADI), the party with which Trovoada had been affiliated since 1994. Within months of de Menezes's election, a power struggle erupted between the new president and the MLSTP-dominated National Assembly, establishing a pattern of political conflict that continued for some time. In 2003 de Menezes was deposed in a military coup, but international negotiations were successful in guaranteeing his reinstatement on the condition that the coup leaders would not be punished for their actions. De Menezes was reelected in 2006, representing the Democratic Movement of Forces for Change, the party that had splinted off from the ADI in late 2001.

William Gervase Clarence-Smith Gerhard Seibert Ed.

Although several fair and peaceful legislative and presidential elections were held in the 1990s and 2000s, they did not immediately transform the country's oversized and inefficient public administration from a centre of cronyism and corruption into an efficient bureaucracy that could provide the structural conditions of a functioning market economy. Consequently, the country's tremendous social and economic problems were far from resolved at the start of the 21st century, although the earnings from petroleum concessions beginning in the mid-2000s and the potential for future oil revenues brought a sense of optimism, as did significant debt relief granted in 2007.

Gerhard Seibert Ed.

Additional Reading

Geography

Kathleen Becker, São Tomé and Príncipe: The Bradt Travel Guide (2008), provides an accessible overview of the country. Although dated, Francisco Tenreiro, A ilha de São Tomé (1961), is still a standard geographic text that includes much historical, economic, and anthropological data; and Arthur Wallis Exell, Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of S. Tomé (with Príncipe and Annobon) (1944), is a classic text still useful in discussion of the island's flora. Patrice Christy and William V. Clarke, Guide des oiseaux de São Tomé et Príncipe/Guia dos pássaros de São Tomé e Príncipe (1998), is a guide in French and Portuguese to the archipelago's notable ornithology. Luiz Ivens Ferraz, The Creole of São Tomé (1979), analyzes the local language. Pablo B. Eyzaguirre, “The Ecology of Swidden Agriculture and Agrarian History in São Tomé,” Cahiers d'Études Africaines, 26(1–2):113–129 (1986); and Tony Hodges, “São Tomé and Príncipe: Combating Cocoa Colonialism,” Africa Report, 13:61–66 (1986), discuss agricultural issues and history. Jędrzej George Frynas, Geoffrey Wood, and Ricardo M.S. Soares de Oliveira, “Business in São Tomé and Príncipe: From Cocoa Monoculture to Petro-State,” African Affairs, 102:51–80 (2003), examines the changing economy. Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Profile: São Tomé and Príncipe (annual), provides up-to-date information on the economy, resources, and industry.

History

Gerhard Seibert, Comrades, Clients, and Cousins: Colonialism, Socialism, and Democratization in São Tomé and Príncipe, 2nd ed. (2006), is a comprehensive study of the country's history, economy, society, and politics. Tony Hodges and Malyn Newitt, São Tomé and Príncipe: From Plantation Colony to Microstate (1988), is a general study of the country. Gervase Clarence-Smith, The Third Portuguese Empire, 1825–1975: A Study in Economic Imperialism (1985), provides the Portuguese colonial context for the 19th and 20th centuries. Stewart Lloyd-Jones and António Costa Pinto, The Last Empire: Thirty Years of Portuguese Decolonization (2003), focuses on the transition to democracy in São Tomé and Príncipe and other former Portuguese colonies. James Duffy, A Question of Slavery (1967), includes a detailed study of the labour system in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Robert Garfield, A History of São Tomé Island, 1470–1655: The Key to Guinea (1992), is a thorough study of the country's early history.William Gervase Clarence-Smith Gerhard Seibert

词条	São Tomé and Príncipe
释义	São Tomé and Príncipe Introduction Sao Tome and Principe, flag ofcountry of central Africa, located on the Equator in the Gulf of Guinea (Guinea, Gulf of). It consists of two main islands (São Tomé and Príncipe) and several rocky islets, including Rôlas, south of São Tomé island, and Caroço, Pedras, and Tinhosas, south of Príncipe. Land (São Tomé and Príncipe) São Tomé, which is oval in shape, is larger than Príncipe, which lies about 90 miles (145 km) northeast of its sister island. The capital of the country, São Tomé city, is situated in the northeastern part of São Tomé island. The country's closest neighbours are Gabon and Equatorial Guinea on the Atlantic coast of central Africa. Relief and drainage In the south and west of both islands, high volcanic mountains fall precipitously to the sea, although neither island has witnessed any volcanic activity in recent centuries. The mountains descend gradually to small plains in the northeast. São Tomé Peak, the highest point on the main island, rises to 6,640 feet (2,024 metres) above sea level, and Príncipe Peak on the smaller island reaches 3,110 feet (948 metres). These mountainous areas are deeply dissected by stream erosion, and spectacular isolated volcanic plugs stand out as landmarks. Swift and rocky streams rush down to the coast in every direction. Climate The climate is basically maritime and tropical, but, because of the rough topography, there is a wide range of microclimates. The prevailing moist southwesterly winds are intercepted by the mountains, so annual rainfall exceeds 275 inches (7,000 mm) in the southwestern part of São Tomé island, while the far northeast receives less than 30 inches (760 mm). The dry season, called gravana, lasts from June to September in the northeast but is scarcely discernible in the wetter regions. In the coastal areas the mean annual temperature is high, in the low 80s F (upper 20s C); the average relative humidity is also high, about 80 percent. Average temperatures decline sharply with elevation, and night temperatures fall below 50 °F (10 °C) at about 2,300 feet (700 metres). Above 3,300 feet (1,000 metres) fine misty rain falls almost continuously and the nights are cold, although frost and snow are unknown. Plant and animal life The original vegetation of the islands was luxuriant tropical rainforest, with a gradual transition from lowland forest to mist forest. Some of the islands' area, mainly in the south and west, is still covered with rainforest. Much of this is secondary growth on abandoned plantation land. The flora and fauna include many rare and endemic species, reflecting the isolation and environmental diversity of the islands. Birds such as the ibis, shrike, and grosbeak can be found in São Tomé and Príncipe. Many of the plants, birds, reptiles, and small mammals are threatened by pressure on the remaining rainforest. People (São Tomé and Príncipe) Ethnic groups The population consists mainly of Forros (from forro, Portuguese for “free man”), descendants of immigrant Europeans and African slaves. Another group, the Angolares, descended from runaway Angolan slaves who were shipwrecked on São Tomé about 1540. The Angolares remained apart in the isolated southern zone of São Tomé island until the late 19th century, but they later spread throughout the country and became largely assimilated. Cape Verdeans (Cape Verde) form the largest group of resident foreigners; many have adopted São Toméan nationality. Angolans (Angola) and Mozambicans (Mozambique) make up most of the rest of the African immigrant community. Like the Cape Verdeans, they are relatively well integrated with the other islanders, because of a shared Luso-African cultural background. There is a small European population—primarily Portuguese—in the country. Languages Standard Portuguese (Portuguese language) is the official language and is understood by virtually all islanders. In addition, three Portuguese-based creoles are spoken: Sãotomense, spoken by the Forros and having by far the largest number of speakers; Angolar, the language of the Angolares, spoken on the southern tip of São Tomé; and Principense, spoken by only a few hundred individuals on Príncipe. Religion About four-fifths of the population belongs to the Roman Catholic Church. The remainder of the population is primarily Protestant, although there is a small percentage of Muslims. Traditional African religious practices and beliefs are widespread, even among adherents of other faiths. Settlement patterns The population is concentrated in the drier and flatter areas of both islands. Whereas a third of the inhabitants live in São Tomé city and its outskirts, only about 5 percent live on the island of Príncipe. Many people live in dispersed settlements known locally as lucháns. Houses made of wooden planks and raised above the ground are typical of the local building methods, although there are also many concrete structures in the Portuguese colonial style. Many people still live in barracklike accommodations on the plantations. Demographic trends Population growth is above the world average but below the average for sub-Saharan Africa. About two-fifths of the population is less than 15 years of age, and almost another one-third is younger than 30, assuring continued rapid growth. Life expectancy in the early 21st century was more than 65 years of age, relatively high for an African country and close to the world average. Economy Decades of colonial stagnation were followed by economic disruption after independence in 1975. Under the tutelage of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank since the mid-1980s, São Tomé and Príncipe has tried to restore a functioning economy by devaluing its currency, reducing the budget deficit, privatizing formerly nationalized companies, attracting foreign investment, and removing price subsidies and controls. Despite all efforts and considerable inflows of foreign funds, however, the results of the imposed reforms did not match the original targets. During that time corruption became rampant, and mass poverty increased tremendously. In the late 1990s, IMF measures helped the country's economy improve considerably, as did the advent of petroleum concessions sales, which continued into the 21st century. São Tomé and Príncipe's economy has historically been dependent on agriculture, and much of the total agricultural area of the two islands belongs to the state. Until 1993 this land was divided into 15 large plantation enterprises, but, by the end of the decade, most of the former plantations were dissolved and their land distributed to smallholders and medium-sized enterprises on a usufruct basis as part of attempted agricultural reform. High levels of unemployment coexist with a critical labour shortage on the former plantations, where wages and working conditions are poor. Agriculture, forestry, and fishing São Tomé is endowed with excellent conditions for tropical agriculture. The growing season is long, the volcanic soils are fertile, and there is no lack of water. Consequently, the economy remains dependent on plantation agriculture, especially cacao (grown for its seeds, cocoa beans). About two-fifths of the total land area is under cultivation, with cacao trees covering a little less than two-thirds of the cultivated land; coconut palms cover most of the remainder. Large areas of plantation land have been poorly maintained since independence; they are harvested from time to time but not otherwise tended. The country has never been self-sufficient in staple foodstuffs, and a combination of local eating habits, the legacy of the plantation economy, and foreign food aid has undermined the production of food crops for the local market. Fine stands of timber remain in the mountains, but the difficulty of removing logs from the steep terrain and the pressing need for effective conservation limit long-term prospects. The country's small size prevents farmers from keeping large herds of livestock, but conditions for poultry raising are quite favourable. Fishing resources are limited by the narrow continental shelf. The domestic demand for fish (commercial fishing) exceeds supply by the local artisan fishermen, and trawlers from European Union countries pay small license fees for the right to fish in the country's national waters. The deep-sea tuna resources of the Gulf of Guinea and shellfish in coastal waters represent the best hopes for fishery exports. Resources and power There are numerous sites for small hydroelectric schemes but no large rivers for major installations. The islands have no known mineral resources, but the country claims an area of the Gulf of Guinea that may have considerable deepwater hydrocarbon reserves; in the late 1990s and early 2000s this potential attracted foreign investors who purchased exploration concessions. In 2001 São Tomé and Príncipe and Nigeria reached an agreement to oversee the exploration and development of potential oil (petroleum) fields in the Joint Development Zone (JDZ), an area of overlapping maritime boundaries about 125 miles (200 km) from the Nigerian coast. The agreement was renegotiated in 2003, after which oil companies began bidding for the right to develop sections within the JDZ. The first exploratory drilling in the JDZ began in 2006. Manufacturing Manufacturing, which accounts for a tiny fraction of the gross domestic product, is hampered by the small size of the domestic market, limited energy resources, and the lack of skilled labour. It consists mainly of small processing factories producing foodstuffs, beverages, soap products, bricks, and sawn wood for the domestic market. Finance and trade São Tomé and Príncipe is reputed to be the recipient of one of the highest amounts of foreign aid per capita in the world, but this has not prevented large budgetary and balance-of-payment deficits. There are several commercial banks active in the country, and the Central Bank of São Tomé and Príncipe controls foreign exchange dealings and issues the country's currency, the dobra. Cocoa (cacao), despite decreasing production, still accounts for almost all foreign exchange earnings from merchandise exports. Most of the cocoa is exported to The Netherlands. Portugal is the main source of imports. Services Tourism is largely limited to the dry season and chiefly attracts individual travelers from Portugal and other European countries. The tourism sector has the potential to be a strong source of economic diversification for the country. The sector has expanded with some foreign investment, but development has been hindered by such obstacles as the presence of tropical diseases (notably malaria), the lengthy wet season, and the expense of traveling to the country. Transportation and telecommunications Transportation assumes particular importance in this isolated microstate. There are no deepwater harbours, and large ships must anchor far out at sea and be unloaded by barge. Shipping links between the islands and with the outside world are erratic, and there are long delays in unloading cargo. The country's primary ports are at São Tomé city and Neves, both on São Tomé island. The international airport near São Tomé city has been expanded and modernized. The telephone system and road network are both fairly good by African standards. Mobile phone use is very popular on the islands, and Internet service is available. Government and society Constitutional framework Under the constitution of 1990 (since amended), the president, who is head of state, is directly elected to a five-year term and is limited to two successive terms. The prime minister serves as the head of government. The legislature is unicameral, with a 55-seat National Assembly. Assembly members are elected by popular vote and serve four-year terms. In April 1995 Príncipe became an autonomous region. The political and judicial structures adopted at independence in 1975 were those of a single-party state modeled on the Soviet example, but the regime never formally proclaimed its adherence to Marxism-Leninism. Free elections for the legislative assembly and the presidency were established by the constitution of 1990 and first held in 1991. At that time close ties with eastern European countries and Cuba were replaced by improved relations with Portugal, France, and other Western countries. Security São Tomé and Príncipe's military is small and consists of army, coast guard, and presidential guard contingents. The country's armed forces have received technical and training assistance from such countries as Portugal, Angola, and the United States. Health and welfare There is one major medical centre for the country, in São Tomé city, which was created by uniting three existing hospitals, several public health posts, and a few private clinics. Malaria is endemic, although initiatives to curb the disease have shown progress since 2000. HIV/AIDS (AIDS) is present in the country, but its prevalence remains undetermined, as the stigma attached to being diagnosed with the disease and the subsequent lack of accurate reporting make the rate of infection difficult to monitor. Education Almost all children attend primary school, which is compulsory for four years. Secondary education consists of two cycles of four and three years, respectively, but secondary schooling opportunities are not as widely available, and fewer students enroll. Vocational training and higher education options are limited, although there is a polytechnic institute (founded 1997), and Portugal's Lusíada University opened a campus on São Tomé island in 2006. Some four-fifths of the adult population is literate. Cultural life Cultural milieu This small country has a homogeneous creole culture, profoundly marked by centuries of blending elements of the dominant Roman Catholic Portuguese culture with various African influences. The kinship system is bilateral, although men traditionally have been polygynous (polygyny). With the virtual absence of monogamous marriage, the conjugal system is characterized by a high incidence of multiple and serial customary unions and visiting relationships; as a result, about one-third of households are headed by females. Despite more than 500 years of Roman Catholicism, local practices have been restricted largely to baptism and a few rites, such as processions and funerals. Various traditional African practices and beliefs have always coexisted with Roman Catholicism. The lexicon of the three local creole languages is predominantly derived from Portuguese, whereas their phonology and syntax stem from African languages. Many African elements have been adopted in the cooking, customs, and beliefs of much of the population, and most people of lower socioeconomic status speak only creole in daily life. Famous examples of cultural creolization are the plays The Tragic Story of the Marquis of Mântua and Emperor Charlemagne (known as Tchiloli on São Tomé island) and Auto da Floripes, popular on Príncipe island, both of which are based on 16th-century Portuguese dramas. Sports and recreation Football (football (soccer)) (soccer) has always been the most popular sport in the country. The first local association was founded in 1931, and a national federation was created in 1977, two years after independence. In the late 1990s the country contained some two dozen clubs competing in two divisions. The clubs of the first division compete annually for the national championship, and there is also a national cup competition. Local competitions comprising all existing sports are held annually on March 12, the National Sports Festival Day. São Tomé and Príncipe first participated in the Olympic Games in 1996, when the Summer Games were held in Atlanta. Media and publishing Several local newspapers appear erratically, but the government-run radio and television stations provide consistent programming, and broadcasts from Portugal and France are locally retransmitted on FM channels. History This discussion focuses on São Tomé and Príncipe since the late 15th century. For a treatment of the country in its regional context, see Central Africa. Portuguese colonial rule São Tomé and Príncipe were uninhabited when they were discovered, about 1470, by Portuguese navigators. In the late 15th century the Portuguese sent out settlers (including many convicts and Jewish children who had been separated from their parents and expelled from Portugal) and brought African slaves (slavery) to the islands to grow sugar. During the 16th century São Tomé was for a brief time the world's largest producer of sugar, but the rise of Brazilian competition and the poor quality of São Tomé's badly dried product virtually destroyed this industry. The economic decline was accentuated by social instability as slaves escaped to the mountains and raided the plantations. Amador, the self-proclaimed king of the slaves who nearly overran the whole island of São Tomé in 1595, is now regarded by many as a national hero. Foreign pirates were another hazard, and the Dutch briefly captured São Tomé in 1641, only to be expelled seven years later. After the collapse of the sugar economy, the colony served as an entrepôt for the Portuguese slave trade to Brazil; the cargoes of small slave ships were transferred to larger vessels for the Atlantic voyage, and provisions such as water were obtained. The islanders produced food crops for these ships and for themselves. Because of the frequent political unrest in São Tomé, the capital was moved in 1753 to Santo António on Príncipe, whose harbour was the site of much activity. In 1778 the Portuguese ceded the islands of Fernando Pó (Bioko) (Bioko) and Annobón (Pagalu) (Annobón), on either side of São Tomé and Príncipe, to the Spaniards, who wished to develop their own African slave trade. The independence of Brazil in 1822, the suppression of the slave trade in the Portuguese territories, and the introduction of coffee and cacao (the source of cocoa beans) cultivation in the 19th century shifted the economic centre of gravity back to São Tomé, and in 1852 São Tomé city once again became the capital. Cacao replaced coffee as the main cash crop in the 1890s, and during the first two decades of the 20th century the colony was in some years the world's largest producer of the commodity. This led to the maximum expansion of the plantations on the islands. When slavery was legally abolished in 1875, the Portuguese recruited contract workers from such places as Angola, Cape Verde, and Mozambique. However, until 1910 the living and working conditions of these indentured labourers often were little different from slavery. Cocoa production fell after World War I, and the islands became isolated and notorious for the brutality and corruption that reigned on the plantations belonging to absentee planters and corporations. Attempts to force the local Forros to work on the plantations led to the Batepá Massacre in 1953, an event later often cited by São Toméans in their demands for independence as an example of the violence under Portuguese rule. The Committee for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe was set up in exile in 1960; it changed its name to the Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe (MLSTP) in 1972. However, it consisted of only a small group of exiles, who were unable to mount a guerrilla challenge to the Portuguese on the islands. The government that took power in Portugal after a coup in 1974 agreed to hand over power to the MLSTP in 1975, and virtually all Portuguese colonists fled to Portugal, fearing an independent black and communist government. Independence was granted on July 12, 1975. After independence The country's first president, Manuel Pinto da Costa of the MLSTP, was elected in 1975. The government initially followed eastern European models of political and economic organization. Economic decline and popular dissatisfaction, however, led to a process of liberalization that started in 1985 and culminated in the establishment of a multiparty democracy in 1990. Pinto da Costa was succeeded in 1991 by Miguel Trovoada, a former prime minister who ran for the presidency unopposed in the first free elections in the country's history. In August 1995 Trovoada was deposed in a bloodless coup orchestrated by the military. However, coup leaders reconsidered their demands when faced with the immediate threat of the loss of foreign aid, and Trovoada was reinstated as president a week later. Trovoada was reelected in 1996 but was barred from seeking a third term in the 2001 election. He was succeeded by businessman Fradique de Menezes of the Independent Democratic Action (ADI), the party with which Trovoada had been affiliated since 1994. Within months of de Menezes's election, a power struggle erupted between the new president and the MLSTP-dominated National Assembly, establishing a pattern of political conflict that continued for some time. In 2003 de Menezes was deposed in a military coup, but international negotiations were successful in guaranteeing his reinstatement on the condition that the coup leaders would not be punished for their actions. De Menezes was reelected in 2006, representing the Democratic Movement of Forces for Change, the party that had splinted off from the ADI in late 2001. William Gervase Clarence-Smith Gerhard Seibert Ed. Although several fair and peaceful legislative and presidential elections were held in the 1990s and 2000s, they did not immediately transform the country's oversized and inefficient public administration from a centre of cronyism and corruption into an efficient bureaucracy that could provide the structural conditions of a functioning market economy. Consequently, the country's tremendous social and economic problems were far from resolved at the start of the 21st century, although the earnings from petroleum concessions beginning in the mid-2000s and the potential for future oil revenues brought a sense of optimism, as did significant debt relief granted in 2007. Gerhard Seibert Ed. Additional Reading Geography Kathleen Becker, São Tomé and Príncipe: The Bradt Travel Guide (2008), provides an accessible overview of the country. Although dated, Francisco Tenreiro, A ilha de São Tomé (1961), is still a standard geographic text that includes much historical, economic, and anthropological data; and Arthur Wallis Exell, Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of S. Tomé (with Príncipe and Annobon) (1944), is a classic text still useful in discussion of the island's flora. Patrice Christy and William V. Clarke, Guide des oiseaux de São Tomé et Príncipe/Guia dos pássaros de São Tomé e Príncipe (1998), is a guide in French and Portuguese to the archipelago's notable ornithology. Luiz Ivens Ferraz, The Creole of São Tomé (1979), analyzes the local language. Pablo B. Eyzaguirre, “The Ecology of Swidden Agriculture and Agrarian History in São Tomé,” Cahiers d'Études Africaines, 26(1–2):113–129 (1986); and Tony Hodges, “São Tomé and Príncipe: Combating Cocoa Colonialism,” Africa Report, 13:61–66 (1986), discuss agricultural issues and history. Jędrzej George Frynas, Geoffrey Wood, and Ricardo M.S. Soares de Oliveira, “Business in São Tomé and Príncipe: From Cocoa Monoculture to Petro-State,” African Affairs, 102:51–80 (2003), examines the changing economy. Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Profile: São Tomé and Príncipe (annual), provides up-to-date information on the economy, resources, and industry. History Gerhard Seibert, Comrades, Clients, and Cousins: Colonialism, Socialism, and Democratization in São Tomé and Príncipe, 2nd ed. (2006), is a comprehensive study of the country's history, economy, society, and politics. Tony Hodges and Malyn Newitt, São Tomé and Príncipe: From Plantation Colony to Microstate (1988), is a general study of the country. Gervase Clarence-Smith, The Third Portuguese Empire, 1825–1975: A Study in Economic Imperialism (1985), provides the Portuguese colonial context for the 19th and 20th centuries. Stewart Lloyd-Jones and António Costa Pinto, The Last Empire: Thirty Years of Portuguese Decolonization (2003), focuses on the transition to democracy in São Tomé and Príncipe and other former Portuguese colonies. James Duffy, A Question of Slavery (1967), includes a detailed study of the labour system in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Robert Garfield, A History of São Tomé Island, 1470–1655: The Key to Guinea (1992), is a thorough study of the country's early history.William Gervase Clarence-Smith Gerhard Seibert
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