the learned of Islam, those who possess the quality of ʿilm, “learning,” in its widest sense. From the ʿulamāʾ, who are versed theoretically and practically in the Muslim sciences, come the religious teachers of the Islamic community—theologians (mutakallimun), canon lawyers (muftis), judges (qadis), professors—and high state religious officials like the shaikh al-Islām. In a narrower sense, ʿulamāʾ may refer to a council of learned men holding government appointments in a Muslim state.

Historically, the ʿulamāʾ have been a powerful class, and in early Islam it was their consensus (ijmāʿ) on theological and juridical problems that determined the communal practices of future generations. Their authority over the community was so pervasive that Muslim governments always attempted to secure their support; in the Ottoman and Mughal empires they sometimes decisively influenced important policies. Although there is no priesthood in Islam, and every believer may perform priestly functions such as leading the liturgical prayer, the ʿulamāʾ have played a clerical role in Islamic society. Hence they are sometimes referred to as the “Muslim priests.”

In modern times the ʿulamāʾ have gradually lost ground to the new Western-educated classes; although they have been abolished in Turkey, their hold on the conservative masses in the rest of the Muslim world remains firm. One of the most crucial problems facing 20th-century Islam was the integration of the ʿulamāʾ and the modern laity.