language device, either in spoken or written form in which the real meaning is concealed or contradicted by the literal meanings of the words (verbal irony) or in a situation in which there is an incongruity between what is expected and what occurs ( dramatic irony).

Verbal irony arises from a sophisticated or resigned awareness of contrast between what is and what ought to be and expresses a controlled pathos without sentimentality. It is a form of indirection that avoids overt praise or censure, as in the casual irony of the statement “That was a smart thing to do!” (meaning “very foolish”).

Dramatic irony depends on the structure of a work rather than its use of words. In plays it is often created by the audience's awareness of a fate in store for the characters that they themselves are unaware of, as when Agamemnon accepts the flattering invitation to walk upon the purple carpet that is to become his shroud. The surprise ending of an O. Henry short story is also an example of dramatic irony, as is the more subtly achieved effect of Anton Chekhov's story “Lady with the Dog,” in which an accomplished Don Juan engages in a routine flirtation only to find himself seduced into a passionate lifelong commitment to a woman who is no different from all the others.

In the 20th century irony was often used to emphasize the multilayered, contradictory nature of modern (and postmodern) experience. For instance, in Toni Morrison's Sula (1973) the black community lives in a neighbourhood called the Bottom, located in the hills above a largely white town. American ethnic writers in particular employed irony in works ranging from memoirs (e.g., Maxine Hong Kingston's The Woman Warrior 【1976】) to novels (e.g., Gerald Vizenor's The Heirs of Columbus 【1991】) to disrupt racial stereotypes.

The term irony has its roots in the Greek comic character Eiron, a clever underdog who by his wit repeatedly triumphs over the boastful character Alazon. The Socratic irony of the Platonic (Plato) dialogues derives from this comic origin. Feigning ignorance and humility, Socrates goes about asking silly and obvious questions of all sorts of people on all sorts of subjects, only to expose their ignorance as more profound than his own. The nonliterary use of irony is usually considered sarcasm.