duke of Brittany from 1399, whose clever reversals in the Hundred Years' War and in French domestic conflicts served to strengthen his duchy.

John was on good terms with Philip the Bold (Philip II), duke of Burgundy, who was his guardian. He began to favour the Armagnac faction in the French civil war, however, after the murder of its leader, Louis, duc d'Orléans, in 1407, though he did not fight the Burgundians. He allowed his subjects to fight the English, but he himself maintained a truce with Henry V of England, and his Breton troops were too late to aid the French at the Battle of Agincourt. John long acknowledged the Treaty of Troyes (1420), which made Henry V of England regent of France and heir to the French throne; but yet he had an alliance with the disinherited dauphin Charles and later allowed his own brother Arthur to become constable of France when the dauphin was claiming the French crown as Charles VII. Though he made efforts toward a real entente with Charles in the 1430s, John was party to the revolts of the Praguerie in 1440 and the League of Nevers in 1442. Within Brittany John brought about significant governmental, military, and economic reforms.