the change in temperature that accompanies expansion of a gas without production of work or transfer of heat. At ordinary temperatures and pressures, all real gases except hydrogen and helium cool upon such expansion; this phenomenon often is utilized in liquefying gases. The phenomenon was investigated in 1852 by the British physicists James Prescott Joule (Joule, James Prescott) and William Thomson (Lord Kelvin (Kelvin, William Thomson, Baron)). The cooling occurs because work must be done to overcome the long-range attraction between the gas molecules as they move farther apart. Hydrogen and helium will cool upon expansion only if their initial temperatures are very low because the long-range forces in these gases are unusually weak.