in Muslim countries, an institution of higher education. The madrasah functioned until the 20th century as a theological seminary and law school, with a curriculum centred on the Qurʾān. In addition to Islāmic (Islāmic world) theology and law, Arabic grammar and literature, mathematics, logic, and, in some cases, natural science were studied in madrasahs. Tuition was free, and food, lodging, and medical care were provided as well. Instruction usually took place in a courtyard and consisted primarily of memorizing textbooks and the instructor's lectures. The lecturer issued certificates to his students that constituted permission to repeat his words.

Princes and wealthy families donated funds for the erection of buildings and for stipends to students and lecturers. By the end of the 12th century, madrasahs flourished in Damascus, Baghdad, Mosul, and most other Muslim cities.