city, capital of Spain and of Madrid provincia (province). Spain's arts and financial centre, the city proper and province form a comunidad autónoma (autonomous community) in central Spain.

Madrid's status as the national capital reflects the centralizing policy of the 16th-century Spanish king Philip II and his successors. The choice of Madrid, however, was also the result of the city's previous obscurity and neutrality; it was chosen because it lacked ties with an established, nonroyal power, rather than because of any strategic, geographic, or economic considerations. Indeed, Madrid is deficient in other characteristics that might qualify it for a leading role. It does not lie on a major river, as so many European cities do; the 16th–17th century dramatist Lope de Vega (Vega, Lope de), referring to a magnificent bridge over the distinctly unimposing waters of the Manzanares, suggested either selling the bridge or buying another river. Madrid does not possess mineral deposits or other natural wealth, nor was it ever a destination of pilgrimages, although its patron saint, San Isidro, enjoys the all-but-unique distinction of having been married to another saint. Even the city's origins seem inappropriate for a national capital: its earliest historical role was as the site of a small Moorish fortress on a rocky outcrop—part of the northern defenses of what was then the far more important city of Toledo, located about 43 miles (70 km) south-southwest.

Madrid was officially made the national capital by Philip III, an entire generation after Philip II took the court to Madrid in 1561. Under the patronage of Philip II and his successors, Madrid developed into a city of curious contrasts, preserving its old, overcrowded centre, around which developed palaces, convents, churches, and public buildings. Pop. (2006 est.) 3,128,600.

Madrid lies almost exactly at the geographical heart of the Iberian Peninsula. It is situated on an undulating plateau of sand and clay known as the Meseta (Meseta Central) (derived from the Spanish word mesa, “table”) at an elevation of some 2,120 feet (646 metres) above sea level, making it one of the highest capitals in Europe. This location, together with the proximity of the Sierra de Guadarrama, is partly responsible for the weather pattern of cold, crisp winters accompanied by sharp winds. Sudden variations of temperature are possible, but summers are consistently dry and hot, becoming especially oppressive in July and August, when temperatures sometimes rise above 100 °F (38 °C). Average temperatures range between 41 and 75 °F (5 and 24 °C), while average precipitation varies between a low of less than 0.5 inch (11 mm) in July up to about 2 inches (50 mm) in October, usually the rainiest month of the year. The temperate times of year are spring and fall, which are also the most attractive seasons for visitors.

Madrid has not escaped the problems common to so many modern cities. Pollution can be intense, and severe traffic congestion is common. Personal safety is not as certain as it once was in the days of the serenos (night watchmen). But the city has preserved the charm, character, and vivacity that give it and its inhabitants a style of their own—an important aspect of modern Spain, where each region seeks to express its own identity.

The flow of migration to Madrid, attracted chiefly by the city's expanding industrial belt in the 1950s and '60s, has created a modern population representative of the entire Spanish country. A traditional nickname for the Madrileños is gatos (“cats”), originally coined in the Middle Ages as a reference to the ability of local troops to scale castle walls. It would be no less apt as a reference to the local lifestyle and the late hours kept by the city's inhabitants, although keeping late hours is also common in other parts of Spain, especially in the heat of summer. People eat late, theatres and cinemas begin performances late as a matter of course, and the siesta is by no means dead, although the introduction of modern business methods and the influx of foreign interests have tended to alter the traditional workday, doing away with the long midday break. The city offers a wealth of cultural events and entertainments; its cultivated people tend to be widely read, while the youth are up-to-date with the latest pop music. The number of casas regionales—regional clubs catering to people who have come from all over the country to work—reflects the source of labour for Madrid's industrial and commercial sectors. Madrid also has taken on a cosmopolitan character with the influx of immigrants, particularly from Latin America but also from Asia, elsewhere in Europe, and North Africa. Madrid is a city that, with its style and flair, absorbs and holds those who live there or know it. Its inhabitants have a reputation for being attached to it; in the words of a local proverb, “From Madrid to heaven, and in heaven a little window from which to see it.”

Being the centre of government, finance, and insurance has long contributed to the prosperity of the capital, as have tourism and the city's position as Spain's transportation hub. Following the Spanish Civil War (1936–39), the city became an important manufacturing centre for the automotive and aircraft industries and for electric and electronic equipment, metallurgical manufactures, and optics, as well as for the production of plastics, rubber, and consumer goods. Madrid, with Barcelona, dominates publishing in Spain. Despite the traditional preeminence of industry, services now account for some four-fifths of employment in the capital. Madrid is home to the Spanish Stock Market, one of Europe's busiest.

The road and rail systems both converge on the capital from all corners of the country. A subway system, the Metro, serves Madrid with various lines that extend throughout the city. Barajas Airport, Madrid's international airport, lies about 8 miles (13 km) east of the city. A motorway (expressway) system encircles Madrid in a roughly pentagonal shape, coming to a point in the south. Other major motorways radiate from the encircling artery in all directions. There are numerous bus routes operated by municipal and private authorities, serving both the city's residents and those commuting from the metropolitan municipalities. Suburban trains also serve commuters. The road-building programs of the 1960s, when much was sacrificed to the convenience of automobile owners, have since been recognized as less than wholly beneficial. Some of the overpasses that were introduced to speed up traffic flow have since been dismantled.

With the return of democracy to Spain in the late 1970s and the development of autonomous regional governments, more emphasis has been placed on local consultation and issues such as the future of the environment. In 1982 the city administration carried out a massive public opinion survey to find out what people really wanted at the neighbourhood level. The resulting General Ordinance Plan (Plan General de Ordenación) attempted to establish a long-term, full-scale scheme for future directed growth, aiming not only to modernize the infrastructure of essential services but also to improve the quality of life in the city. Local administration is under the direction of a mayor and city council, elected every four years.

Despite the introduction of the autonomous regions, Madrid continues to be the focus of Spain's government. It is also a bishopric, headquarters of the army corps, and residence of the captain general of the first military region. Moreover, the Supreme Court and government ministries are located there, as is the Cortes Generales (the Spanish parliament), which is housed in a 19th-century Neoclassical building. Characterized by the bronze lions (made from melted down Moorish cannon) flanking the entrance, it is one of the smallest parliament buildings in Europe.

The Arab town, or medina, grew around the alcazar (castle) on a promontory overlooking the Manzanares River. The name Majerit first appears in AD 932, when the Christian king Ramiro II of León razed the town's walls, but there are traces of earlier (even prehistoric) habitation. The Christian king Alfonso VI of Castile and León captured the town from the Muslims in 1083, and thereafter a number of kings of Castile spent time there. The parliament (Cortes) was called there as early as 1309. The alcazar was damaged in an earthquake in 1466 and the subsequent medieval palace was extended by various monarchs, notably Charles I (Charles V) and Philip II. During this period the town grew to the east up both sides of what are now the Calle Mayor and the Calle de Segovia, with the Moors (who continued to live there until after the Christian reconquest of Spain was completed in 1492) jammed into the southwest corner, which is still called the Moreria. The whole of the city at this time was only about 500 by 900 yards (450 by 825 metres) in area. Some of the street patterns of the pre-16th-century city remain, but few buildings; one that still stands is the much-restored Casa de los Lujanes, where it is believed the French king Francis I was once held prisoner. Charles I enjoyed hunting near Madrid, and it is said that the widening of the city gates to accommodate his carriages opened the cramped streets to heavier traffic, a process that was to increase when the court was properly established in the city. By 1598 the population of Madrid had reached 60,000, and by the time of the first extant plan of Madrid (Pedro Teixeira's in 1656) it had grown to be an imposing city of 100,000 people and 11,000 buildings.

Under the Habsburg (Habsburg, House of) monarchs (known in Spain as the house of the Austrias), Madrid expanded even more rapidly. The foreign ministry (1634), the Casa de Cisneros, and the Segovia Bridge date from this time, as does the church of San Isidro el Real. Architects such as Juan de Herrera (Herrera, Juan de) and Francisco de Mora contributed to the monumental quality of the city. But the most striking contribution of this period is generally considered to be the Plaza Mayor, designed by Juan Gómez de Mora and built between 1617 and 1619; it was modified after the great fire of 1790. Graceful in concept, it is surrounded by five-story houses with balconies and topped with steeples. Nine archways open onto the plaza at oblique angles from surrounding streets, and the continuous arcade at street level contains shops and restaurants. Bullfights (in those days conducted by noblemen on horseback), fireworks displays, and plays all took place there, as did the grim ceremonies of the inquisition. Until 1765 public garrotings were also carried out there. The last bullfight to take place in the Plaza Mayor was in honour of the wedding of Isabella II in 1846.

An equally impressive landmark dates from the next great phase of the city's growth, under the Bourbons, whose side Madrid took against the Habsburgs in the War of the Spanish Succession (Spanish Succession, War of the) (1701–14), although the city was briefly occupied by pro-Habsburg troops. The Royal Palace was begun by Philip V after the disastrous fire that destroyed the Alcazár on Christmas night, 1734. His grandiose plan, with 23 inner courts, was never realized, although the finished work did have 500 rooms. It was a fitting addition to the other major city features created under his patronage—the Royal Spanish Academy, the National Library, and the Royal Academy of History. The Royal Palace, with its elegant granite and limestone walls, contains a ceiling by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista) in the throne room and, in the Armeria, one of the world's finest collections of armour, including the swords of the conquistadores Hernán Cortés (Cortés, Hernán, marqués del Valle de Oaxaca) and Francisco Pizarro (Pizarro, Francisco). The last king of Spain actually to live there was Alfonso XIII, whose apartments have been preserved just as he left them when he abdicated in 1931. The royal family now resides in the more private and less ostentatious La Zarzuela Palace, set in its own grounds to the northwest of Madrid. A less important palace, Buen Retiro, was also favoured by the Bourbon kings; its gardens, which were much admired for their French style, are still a much frequented open space.

One of Madrid's most popular and busiest squares is Puerta del Sol (“Sun Gate”). The original post office building (1768) is located there (the building is now the seat of the Madrid community). All distances in the country are measured from the zero-kilometre stone beneath its wall. Aside from being a basis for numbering Spain's roads, the zero-kilometre stone is the symbolic centre of Spain, and it is where many rallies, protests, and other gatherings have taken place. Puerta del Sol is particularly popular on New Year's Eve, when Madrileños go to hear the clock strike midnight and to eat the 12 grapes that supposedly ensure good luck in the following months. In earlier times the square was significant because of the stagecoaches that left from there to all parts of the peninsula. Its appeal made it the site of various innovations in urban amenities, from the first gas lamps in 1830 through the first mule trams and first public urinal to the first electric streetlights and electric streetcars. Charles III set up the Botanic Garden (which still exists), with a “physic” garden from which anybody could (and still can) collect medicinal herbs. He planned a natural history and science museum next to it but died before it could be completed.

Madrid was occupied by French troops during the Napoleonic Wars, and Napoleon's brother Joseph was installed on the throne. On May 2, 1808, there was a mass uprising against Joseph, leading to what the Spaniards term the Guerra de la Independencia (“War of Independence”). Ferdinand VII, on his return in 1814 from imprisonment by Napoleon, bestowed the title of “heroic” upon the city. In 1819 the building intended by Charles III to house a natural history and science museum was completed. Into it Ferdinand moved artworks of the royal collection, until then scattered among various palaces. This was the start of what was to become one of the world's major art galleries, the Prado. The Madrid of this period can still be studied in close detail, thanks to the remarkable model constructed by León Gil Palacios in 1830. It was during this period that the city expanded to the north, under the direction of Joaquín Vizcaíno, a nobleman who was also mayor (as was customary at the time). He is also known as the man who introduced such innovations as street numbers for buildings, street lighting, and municipal refuse collection. The Paseo del Prado was extended by a new boulevard, called the Paseo de los Recoletos. This area, for years presenting an almost rural atmosphere, being bordered by imposing town houses with great gardens, is now the site of tall office blocks, apartment buildings, luxury hotels, and embassies, as well as the National Library, the National Archaeological Museum, the Queen Sofia Arts Centre, and the Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum. One of the area's mansions, now converted into a bank, belonged to the marqués de Salamanca, who in 1872 also contributed to the drive northward by building 28 streets on a grid plan, starting from the Calle de Alcalá and parallel to the Paseo. Still bearing his name, this area remains one of the most elegant barrios in Madrid.

Somewhat earlier, in 1860, the Plan Castro—also referred to as the Ensanche (“Widening”)—had further expanded and modernized the city, adding convenience and meeting the economic and commercial needs of the time. It was the first comprehensive, forward-looking modern plan for Madrid. However, it was to be frustrated by population growth, land speculation, and the poor areas that sprang up outside the planned zones.

Other plans followed the Plan Castro: Arturo Soria's linear city of 1892, with a planned 31-mile (50-km) axis stretching away from the city and served by a suburban railroad; and the satellite city idea of Núñez Granes (1910). Neither of these found support. It was in 1910 that a major new landmark appeared. The barrio of San Bernardo was bisected by a broad way running from the Calle de Alcalá downhill to the Plaza de España, which is where the city's first high-rise commercial buildings were erected. This, the Gran Vía, was designed to be the main street of the city, and it has a characteristic vitality, with cinemas, coffeehouses, shops, and banks. Following the Civil War, it was renamed Avenida José Antonio after the founder of the Spanish fascist party, the Falange Española. Many streets and squares acquired new names at this time, but since Franco's death most have reverted to their old ones. Another famous landmark, the Palacio de Comunicaciones in Cibeles Square, dates from about 1909. (In 2007 the Town Hall was transferred to this building.)

With the advent of the Republic in 1931, radial and ring roads appeared, and the Paseo de la Castellana was extended even farther. The city suffered heavily in the Civil War (Spanish Civil War), with two years of aerial and artillery bombardment and combat lines drawn up as close as University City in western and northwestern Madrid. War damage to public buildings was repaired, and ambitious reconstruction plans were drawn up, but once again these were by and large unsuccessful in practice. The city spread outward, swallowing its own suburbs; between 1948 and 1951 Madrid burgeoned to cover a total of 205 square miles (531 square km), an approximately 10-fold growth rate. Land speculation, uncontrolled urban sprawl, and industrial development led to the changes of the 1960s, which, in common with the experience of many European cities, caused often irreparable damage to aspects of the city's cultural heritage. A 1963 plan redirected growth without controlling it. Legislation passed in the 1980s and '90s protects many of the city's most prized structures, and there is emphasis on preserving older buildings, even if only elements of them can be saved.

During the 1980s and '90s, major remodeling programs were inaugurated, and tens of thousands of new residences were constructed. A National Music Auditorium opened in 1990 along Calle Príncipe de Vergara, and during the decade several major building projects were undertaken, including the construction of a new railway station, and several cultural institutions, such as the Queen Sofia Museum, opened. Adjacent to the Royal Palace and near the Plaza de Oriente is Almudena Cathedral, now the city's main cathedral. Construction began in 1883, but its completion was long delayed by work stoppages (because of financial constraints and the Spanish Civil War), and it was consecrated in 1993 by Pope John Paul II (a statue of whom is located on the grounds). Solidifying its role as a thriving metropolis, Madrid was designated the European Capital of Culture for 1992.

On March 11, 2004, Madrid suffered a devastating series of terrorist (terrorism) attacks when 10 bombs, detonated by Islamist militants, exploded on four trains at three different rail stations during rush hour. The attacks killed 191 people and injured some 1,800 others. Notwithstanding this tragedy, Madrid remained a major tourist attraction and a focus of Spanish political and cultural life in the 21st century.

The Madrid autonomous community roughly coincides with the drainage of the Jarama, Henares, and Manzanares rivers off the southern slopes of the Sierra de Guadarrama. On the monotonous Meseta Central the terrain is a bare, typically Castilian landscape of yellow soils and open cereal fields; it was the scene of several decisive battles during the Spanish Civil War (1936–39). Pine forests, preserved on the mountain slopes, attract a new style of summer suburbia for residents of Madrid city (the provincial and national capital) and provide ski facilities in the winter. Only along the Henares and Jarama do irrigated lands give ribbons of green, intensive horticulture; on the outskirts of Greater Madrid are poultry and pig farms interspersed with the development of villas or factories along the main highways. Well-endowed with building materials, the region has granite quarries in the Guadarrama and clays to the south.

An important factor in transport and communications is the relative ease of access via passes over the central mountains, notably the Somosierra Mountain Pass (4,650 feet 【1,417 metres】) to the northeast, which is used by road and the Burgos railway. The Madrid-Segovia rail route travels through Navacerrada Pass (6,100 feet 【1,860 metres】). All the major railways converge in the region, and a high-speed train links Madrid city to Barcelona city.