preparation of the ore for use in various products.

Manganese (Mn) is a hard, silvery white metal with a melting point of 1,244° C (2,271° F). Ordinarily too brittle to be of structural value itself, it is an essential agent in steelmaking, in which it removes impurities such as sulfur and oxygen and adds important physical properties to the metal. For these purposes it is most often employed as a ferromanganese or silicomanganese alloy; as a pure metal it is added to certain nonferrous alloys.

Manganese is an allotropic metal—that is, its crystal structure changes with temperature. While cooling from the molten state down to 1,138° C (2,080° F), it solidifies into a body-centred cubic structure called the delta (δ) phase; from that point down to 1,100° C (2,000° F) it is in the face-centred cubic gamma (γ) phase, and from this point down to room temperature it goes through the beta (β) and alpha (α) phases. These last two phases, characterized by complex cubic structures, are extremely hard and brittle, while the simpler gamma phase is more ductile.

Manganese metal oxidizes superficially in air, rusts in moist air, and burns in air or oxygen at elevated temperatures. It decomposes water slowly when cool and rapidly when heated, forming hydrogen gas and manganous hydroxide, and it dissolves readily in dilute mineral acids, generating hydrogen and various manganous salts. The chemical reactivity of the metal accounts for its utility in metallurgy and in various chemical compounds.

Metallic manganese was first isolated in 1774 by Johan Gottlieb Gahn (Gahn, Johan Gottlieb), a Swedish mineralogist who reduced pyrolusite, a manganese dioxide ore, with carbon. In 1856 Robert Forester Mushet, a British steelmaker, used manganese to improve the ability of steel produced by the Bessemer process to withstand rolling and forging at elevated temperatures. A tough, wear-resistant steel containing approximately 12 percent manganese was developed in Sheffield, Eng., by Robert Abbott Hadfield (Hadfield, Sir Robert Abbott, Baronet) in 1882. Ferromanganese was first smelted commercially in a blast furnace in 1875; electric-furnace production began in 1890. Pure manganese was not available commercially until 1941, following work on electrolysis conducted in the 1930s under S.M. Shelton at the U.S. Bureau of Mines.

The most important manganese ores are the oxides pyrolusite, romanechite, manganite, and hausmannite and the carbonate ore rhodochrosite. Rhodonite and braunite, both silicate ores, are frequently found with the oxides. Only ores containing greater than 35 percent manganese are considered commercially exploitable. Impurities include oxides of other metals, such as iron, that are reduced along with manganese upon smelting; nonmetallic elements such as phosphorus, sulfur, and arsenic; and metallic “gangue oxides” such as silica, alumina, lime, and magnesia, which, with the exception of silica, generally remain in the slag upon smelting.

A relatively abundant metal, manganese is widely distributed throughout the Earth's crust. The principal sources are Australia, Brazil, Gabon, India, South Africa, Ukraine, and Georgia. In addition to terrestrial sources, manganese is present in nodules that are distributed widely over the seafloor. Higher-grade nodules contain 10 to 20 percent manganese along with significant amounts of cobalt, copper, and nickel.

The mining of manganese ores is usually done in open pits. Some ores are upgraded by washing, and undersized ores can be agglomerated by sintering. Several processes have been developed for mining seafloor nodules, but they cannot compete economically with the ready exploitation of high-grade terrestrial deposits.

Pure manganese is produced by hydrometallurgical and electrolytic processes, while ferromanganese and silicomanganese are produced by the smelting of ores in a blast furnace or, more commonly, in an electric furnace. The latter process, involving the reduction of manganese oxides by carbon, is actually a complex thermodynamic problem. The higher oxides (MnO₂, Mn₂O₃, and Mn₃O₄) can all be reduced to manganous oxide (MnO) by carbon monoxide, but this lower oxide can be reduced to the metal only at elevated temperatures by carbon. Smelting is further complicated by the action of the gangue oxides. For example, silica, an acidic compound, can combine with MnO and prevent it from being reduced—a problem that can be corrected by the use of ores high in such basic constituents as lime and magnesia or by the addition of basic fluxes such as roasted limestone. However, this generates more slag, which tends to dissolve manganese and lower the amount of metal recovered in the melt. In addition, depending on the smelting temperature and the acidity or basicity of the slag, silica can be reduced to silicon and enter the molten metal.

The primary product of the smelting process outlined above is a carbon-saturated ferroalloy containing 76 to 80 percent manganese, 12 to 15 percent iron, up to 7.5 percent carbon, and up to 1.2 percent silicon. It can be produced by two methods. In the first, ores are selected on the basis of their acidity so that, on smelting, 70 to 80 percent of the manganese is recovered in the melt while a slag containing 30 to 42 percent manganese is also obtained. (This slag can be resmelted to produce silicomanganese; see below.) The second method, which employs basic ores or fluxes, recovers 85 to 90 percent of the metal and generates a slag low enough in manganese to be discarded. The first method consumes 2,400 to 2,800 kilowatt-hours of electric power per ton of product, while the second, reflecting the higher energy needed to calcine the fluxes and continue smelting to a higher recovery of metal, consumes 2,600 to 3,100 kilowatt-hours per ton.

This alloy, containing 65 to 68 percent manganese, 16 to 21 percent silicon, and 1.5 to 2 percent carbon, is produced by the smelting of slag from high-carbon ferromanganese or of manganese ore with coke and a quartz flux. Smelting temperatures are higher than in ferromanganese production, and greater energy is needed to reduce the quartz to silicon, so that power consumption is 3,800 to 4,800 kilowatt-hours per ton.

The carbon content of the alloy is significantly lowered by the presence of silicon. Further removal of carbon can occur on cooling, owing to the formation of silicon carbide, which floats to the top of the metal and is collected in the slag. A silicomanganese of even lower carbon content (less than 0.1 percent) can be obtained by resmelting silicomanganese with more coke and quartz. This product is used as a reducing agent in the manufacture of low-carbon ferromanganese.

To obtain a product of low carbon and silicon content, manganese ore, lime flux, and coal are fused in a furnace, forming a melt rich in MnO. This is then contacted with silicomanganese or low-carbon silicomanganese. The silicon in these alloys reduces the MnO to manganese metal and is itself oxidized into the slag. The carbon content of the particular silicomanganese reducing agent carries over to the final ferromanganese product—about 1 percent when silicomanganese is used and 0.1 percent with low-carbon silicomanganese.

Another method of producing medium-carbon silicomanganese involves refining molten high-carbon ferromanganese by blowing it with oxygen. This oxidizes the carbon until its content in the metal is less than 1.5 percent.

For applications in which pure manganese is preferred, manganese ores are roasted to obtain an MnO calcine, and this is dissolved in sulfuric acid to form a manganous sulfate solution. The addition of ammonia precipitates iron and aluminum, and the addition of hydrogen sulfide precipitates arsenic, copper, zinc, lead, cobalt, and molybdenum. The purified solution is then fed into the cathode portion of an electrolytic cell, and, with the passage of electric current, manganese is deposited in layers a few millimetres thick on a stainless-steel cathode sheet. Cathodes are extracted periodically, and the manganese deposits are removed by hammering. The flakes are heated to 500° C (925° F) to remove hydrogen, resulting in a powdered manganese of greater than 99.9 percent purity.

More than 90 percent of the manganese produced goes into metallurgical applications, the pure metal being used in copper and aluminum alloys and ferromanganese and silicomanganese employed in steel and cast iron.

Most manganese is consumed as high-carbon ferromanganese for addition to carbon steels. In steels of lower carbon content, the medium- and low-carbon ferroalloy and even electrolytic manganese are employed.

As a desulfurizer, manganese forms stable, high-melting sulfide particles, thereby removing sulfur from the crystalline grain boundaries of the metal, where it can cause “hot shortness” (the inability to stand up to hot working). As a deoxidizer, silicomanganese is more effective than either silicon or manganese alone, since the simultaneous reaction of the two elements with oxygen produces a manganous silicate, which is low-melting and readily separates from the steel.

Most important, as an alloying agent, manganese improves strength, hardness, hardenability, and abrasion resistance. For example, Hadfield steel, containing 10 to 14 percent manganese, is a wear-resistant steel noted for its capacity to be work-hardened. In low-alloy steels, additions of up to 1.2 percent manganese, in combination with other elements, increases yield and tensile strength.

Powdered electrolytic manganese is briquetted with aluminum shot and added to aluminum in concentrations up to 2 percent. These alloys have greater strength, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance than can be provided by pure aluminum.

Aside from its standard alloying agents (aluminum, nickel, and zinc) copper can be improved by the addition of manganese. Manganese serves as a deoxidizer of the molten alloy, lowers the liquidus and solidus (thereby improving castability), and has a general strengthening effect. Special alloys, such as those with high electrical resistivity or high thermal expansion, can also be produced.

Manganous oxide is made by the reduction of manganous dioxide (MnO₂) by carbon, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or hydrocarbons at temperatures between 400° and 800° C (750° and 1,450° F). Manganese is readily assimilated by plants in this form, so that MnO is used as a fertilizer supplement in manganese-deficient regions. For use in fertilizer, MnO is obtained by the reduction of ores; high-purity MnO is used in specialty ceramics.

Although it occurs naturally in manganese ores, manganous dioxide, which finds its principal application as a depolarizer in dry-cell batteries, is usually produced synthetically. Manganese ore is reduced and then leached with sulfuric acid. The solution is purified, and manganous dioxide is obtained by electrolysis. It can also be obtained by the oxidation of manganese compounds of lower valance or by the thermal decomposition of manganese nitrate.

Potassium permanganate (KMnO₄) finds wide use as an oxidizing agent. It is produced by alkaline fusion under oxidizing conditions, followed by electrolysis.