“Martinique”的意思、由来-百科全书

Martinique

overseas department, France

Introduction

island and overseas département and région of France, in the eastern Caribbean Sea. It is included in the Lesser Antilles island chain. Its nearest neighbours are the island republics of Dominica, 22 miles (35 km) to the northwest, and Saint Lucia, 16 miles (26 km) to the south. Guadeloupe, also a French overseas département and région, lies about 75 miles (120 km) to the north. The name Martinique is probably a corruption of the Indian name Madiana (“Island of Flowers”) or Madinina (“Fertile Island with Luxuriant Vegetation”), as reputedly told to Christopher Columbus by the Caribs in 1502. The administrative capital and chief town is Fort-de-France. Area 436 square miles (1,128 square km). Pop. (2007 est.) 401,000.

Land (Martinique)

Martinique is about 50 miles (80 km) long and reaches a maximum width of 22 miles (35 km). Among the smallest of the French overseas territories, Martinique has one of the highest population densities in the Antilles.

Relief and drainage

The mountainous relief of Martinique takes the form of three principal massifs. These are an active volcano, Mount Pelée (Pelée, Mount), which rises to 4,583 feet (1,397 metres), to the north; the Carbet Mountains, of which Lacroix Peak reaches 3,923 feet (1,195 metres), in the centre; and Mount Vauclin, rising to 1,654 feet (504 metres), in the south.

The tortuous relief of the island has created a complex drainage pattern characterized by short watercourses. In the south the Salée and Pilote rivers flow down from the slopes of Mount Vauclin. In the centre the rivers flow outward from the Carbet Mountains in a starlike pattern; they include the Lorrain, Galion, Capot, and Lézarde rivers. In the north the Grande, Céron, Roxelane, Pères, and Sèche rivers are little more than irregular torrents.

The northern coastline of Martinique is characterized by steep cliffs; farther south, however, the cliffs become lower. There are two large bays—Fort-de-France and Marin—on the western coast. Coral reefs, headlands, and coves line the eastern coast.

Climate

The climate is remarkably constant, the average temperature being about 79 °F (26 °C), with average minimums of 68–72 °F (20–22 °C), average maximums of 86–90 °F (30–32 °C), and temperature extremes of 59 °F (15 °C) and 93 °F (34 °C). The northeast trade winds, which blow almost 300 days per year, temper the heat, but winds from the south are hot and humid and sometimes bring hurricanes.

There are two distinct seasons—a relatively dry season, which lasts from December to June, and a rainy winter season from July to December. There is abundant precipitation, especially in July and September, but it is irregularly distributed, varying from about 40 inches (1,000 mm) to almost 400 inches (10,000 mm) per year, depending on elevation and landforms.

Plant and animal life

The climate, together with the fertile volcanic soil, produces a luxuriant flora in four vegetational zones: the maritime zone, the lowlands, the former forest zone, and the upper mountain slopes. The maritime zone includes an enormous mangrove swamp, half of which is located in the bay of Fort-de-France. Morning glories, tropical twining herbs, and sea grapes inhabit the beaches. The lowland vegetation zone, extending from the coast to an elevation of about 1,500 feet (460 metres), has ferns and orchids, as well as various trees, including mahogany, white gum, and other species. Above 1,500 feet is the former virgin forest zone, where large trees and bracken are still found. As elevation increases the trees grow smaller. A transitional zone is characterized by peat moss. Above about 3,000 feet (900 metres) the upper slopes are almost bare, except for some stunted forest. Forests cover about one-fourth of the total land area.

There are relatively few kinds of animals on the island. The mongoose was introduced in the 19th century in the hope of eliminating the deadly rat-tailed viper, but the plan was unsuccessful. Also found are manicons (a kind of opossum), wild rabbits, wild pigeons, turtledoves, and ortolans, which are small birds that are often netted and fattened as a table delicacy.

People (Martinique)

The original Carib Indian population disappeared after Europeans arrived, partly as a result of disease, conflicts with the Europeans, and assimilation. In 1658 French settlers on the island numbered about 5,000. Slaves brought from Africa added a further ethnic component. Today people of mixed European and African ancestry account for more than nine-tenths of the population, but the island's economy is largely controlled by the small proportion of people of European descent. A small fraction of the population is descended from labourers brought from the Indian subcontinent. A creole (creole languages) similar to that spoken in Haiti is commonly heard, but French is the official language.

The majority of the population is Roman Catholic; there are smaller numbers of Protestants (mostly Seventh-day Adventists), other Christians, and adherents of other religions. Some people incorporate elements of Vodou (Voodoo) into their beliefs.

The population of Martinique increased rapidly until the late 1970s, when, plagued by unemployment and other economic maladies, the residents of the island began to emigrate in large numbers to France and in smaller numbers to French Guiana. About one-fourth of the total population lives in Fort-de-France, and nearly the entire population lives in urban areas.

Economy

Martinique has a typically Caribbean economy, depending heavily on a few agricultural products and tourism and relying on outside sources, principally France, for aid. A large trade deficit and a high rate of unemployment are major impediments to economic progress. Nevertheless, the island enjoys one of the higher standards of living in the Caribbean, partly due to a wage scale linked to that of metropolitan France.

Agriculture and fishing

The principal agricultural products are sugarcane and bananas, the latter grown chiefly for export. Sugarcane is mainly used to produce rum, which is also exported. Fresh and canned pineapples and pineapple juice, cut flowers, avocados, eggplants, and citrus fruits are other exports. Grown for the domestic market are yams, cassava, sweet potatoes, and breadfruits. Crabs, lobsters, clams, cod, and crayfish are fished mainly for local consumption. The widespread destruction of banana plantations caused by occasional hurricanes has created major setbacks.

Manufacturing

Significant manufactures include cement, processed sugar and rum, clothing, fabricated metals, and yawls and other small craft. There is an important oil refinery at Fort-de-France. Other industries include rum distilling, fish and fruit canning, sugar refining, the processing of cattle feed, soft drinks, and food, and the manufacture of pottery, wooden furniture, and chemicals. The government has promoted light manufacturing, and the construction of yachts and sport boats is of growing importance.

Tourism and trade

One of the most popular tourist areas in the Caribbean, Martinique has a flourishing cruise ship business that brings tourists mainly from France, Canada, and the United States.

Martinique's economy is heavily dependent on trade with France, which provides the majority of the island's imports and exports. The value of imports far surpasses that of exports, resulting in large trade deficits. Exports include agricultural products (significantly bananas), refined petroleum products, and processed foods and beverages (notably rum). Chief imports are agricultural implements and machinery, food, automobiles, mineral fuels, and chemicals and chemical products.

Transportation

Martinique maintains regular air and sea links with France and North America. The main port is Fort-de-France. There is an international airport at Lamentin, to the east of Fort-de-France. An expressway links Fort-de-France with coastal towns. There are local bus services, and small coastal steamers connect various points around the island.

Government and society

As an overseas département and région, Martinique is divided into four arrondissements and subdivided into cantons and communes, each of which is administered by an elected municipal council. The French state is represented by an appointed prefect and three regional subprefects, and there are two elected legislative councils; the General Council and the Regional Council, the presidents of which share executive authority in the département. Martinique is represented in the French National Assembly, in the French Senate, on the French Economic and Social Council, and in the European Parliament.

Justice

The French system of justice is in force. The Court of Appeal at Fort-de-France also has jurisdiction over French Guiana. There are two lower courts (tribunaux d'instance), one higher court (tribunal de grande instance), one administrative court, and a commercial court.

Health and welfare

There are several general and maternity hospitals, as well as some dispensaries. Martinique receives the same social benefits as mainland France.

Education

Education is free and compulsory for children between 6 and 16 years of age. There are primary, secondary, and vocational schools. The vast majority of the people are literate. Higher education is usually pursued in metropolitan France; a number of scholarships are available. The Martinique campus of the University of the Antilles and Guiana is in a suburb of Fort-de-France.

Cultural life

The pre-Lenten carnival of Fort-de-France, featuring a parade with elaborate masks, is an annual event. Vodou (Voodoo) ceremonies are sometimes held, though they are far less important in Martinique than they are in Haiti. Cockfighting is a popular sport. Sites of historical interest include the Pagerie Museum, the reconstructed birthplace of Empress Joséphine, consort of Napoleon I, in Les Trois-Îlets. Joséphine was born in 1763 to a Martinique planter named Joseph Tascher de La Pagerie.

History (Martinique)

Early period

Carib Indians inhabited the island at the time Christopher Columbus (Columbus, Christopher) sighted it in 1493. It was not until 1502, on his fourth voyage, that he visited the island, leaving some pigs and goats there. Neglected by the Spaniards, who sought more material rewards than those the island offered, Martinique was occupied in 1635 by a Frenchman, Pierre Bélain, sieur (lord) d'Esnambuc (Bélain, Pierre, sieur d'Esnambuc), who established 80 settlers at Fort-Saint-Pierre at the mouth of the Roxelane River. A year later d'Esnambuc, who had fallen ill, entrusted Martinique to his nephew, Jacques-Dyel du Parquet, who bought the island from the Compagnie des Îles d'Amérique and developed it into a remarkably prosperous colony. In 1654 a group of 250 Dutch Jews, whom Portuguese forces had ousted from Brazil, introduced sugarcane. Cotton was another early introduction. About 1660 the first cacao (the source of chocolate) plantation was established.

French rule

After the death of du Parquet, his widow governed the island in the name of her children, but her policies were often opposed by the settlers. In 1658 the French king, Louis XIV, resumed sovereignty over the island and paid an indemnity to du Parquet's children. In 1664 the island was placed under the authority of the Compagnie des Indes Occidentales (West Indies Company); in 1674 it was made part of the French crown domain and was administered according to the Pacte Colonial, a body of principles summarized in the statement “The mother country founds and maintains the colonies; the colonies enrich the mother country.” Supplies and slaves were transported to the French Antilles by the Compagnie du Sénégal, founded in 1664; the slave ships called at Martinique before proceeding to Guadeloupe, permitting the colony first choice of the slaves. In 1723 coffee was introduced from Arabia, thus further contributing to the island's prosperity. In 1787 Louis XVI granted Martinique the right to establish a colonial assembly.

At various times Martinique was attacked by foreign fleets. An attack by the Dutch was repulsed in 1674; further assaults by the British were repelled in 1693 and 1759. In 1762, however, the British captured the island, only to return it to France under the terms of the Treaty of Paris (Paris, Treaty of) in 1763. The British recaptured it in 1794 and occupied it until 1802; after having been captured once more by the British in 1809, it was definitively restored to France in 1814.

Slave uprisings occurred in 1789, 1815, and 1822. Following the abolition of slavery in 1848, plantation owners imported workers from India and China in order to avoid paying high labour costs. Universal suffrage was proclaimed in 1848 but was abolished under Napoleon III; after 1870 the Third Republic of France restored representation for the island in the French Parliament.

In 1902 the volcanic eruption of Mount Pelée (Pelée, Mount) destroyed the town of Saint-Pierre, killing about 30,000 people. During World War II Martinique adhered to the Vichy government of Nazi-occupied France for three years before rallying to the Free French cause in 1943. In 1946 Martinique was granted the status of a French département, and in 1974 it was made a région.

Developments since World War II

The postwar politics of Martinique, which was more vociferous in its demands for independence than Guadeloupe, was influenced by Aimé Césaire (Césaire, Aimé), the Martiniquais writer who was one of the founders of the Negritude movement. Césaire, first elected as a deputy in 1946, had originally been a member of the Communist Party, but by 1956 he had resigned and formed his own party, the Progressive Party of Martinique. In 1957 Césaire's party won the Martinique elections by an enormous margin, and it seemed that independence would be achieved.

Martinique's economy was depressed, however, and massive unemployment worked against the independence movement. Emigration to France and French foreign aid had always been palliatives for Martinique's economic problems, and demands for independence resulted only in Martinique's being given greater autonomy. Unrest continued, and by the late 1970s the French government, in an apparent about-face, decided to help Martinique become economically self-sufficient in preparation for independence. Economic problems were exacerbated by the widespread destruction from hurricanes in 1979 and 1980.

Liberation groups were responsible in the 1980s for several bombings in Paris and the French Caribbean islands. Some movement toward autonomy came with France's decentralization law of 1982, under which executive power in the overseas départements devolved from the appointed prefect to the locally elected legislative councils. Over the next several years the local councils also gained greater control over the economy, police, and taxation. After 1986, pro-independence parties won progressively more seats on the legislative councils, in part because of apprehension over France's—and thus Martinique's—joining the European Union (EU). Although a plurality of the island's voters approved the Treaty on European Union in 1992, less than one-fourth of the electorate participated in the election. A subsequent wave of protests and work stoppages swept the island over fears that Martinique's farms and industries would lose the special protections they had enjoyed under French rule.

In 1999 and 2000 the presidents of the Regional Councils of Martinique, Guadeloupe, and French Guiana proposed—and France's Parliament subsequently approved—a number of institutional and economic changes for the overseas départements, such as establishing congresses of the Regional and General Councils and granting greater autonomy in international relations. As part of a general reclassification of French overseas possessions in January 2007, Martinique received the combined designation of overseas département and région (DOM-ROM).

Robert Cornevin Ed.

Additional Reading

Travel guides include Lynne M. Sullivan, Martinique and Guadeloupe Alive! (2002); and Douglas Stallings et al. (eds.), Fodor's 08 Caribbean (2007). Katherine E. Browne, Creole Economics: Caribbean Cunning Under the French Flag (2005), examines how the people of the French West Indies, especially Martinique, have incorporated “Frenchness” into their culture and economics. Alwyn Scarth, La Catastrophe: Mount Pelée and the Destruction of Saint-Pierre, Martinique (2002), gives a day-by-day account of the 1902 eruption.

词条	Martinique
释义	Martinique overseas department, France Introduction island and overseas département and région of France, in the eastern Caribbean Sea. It is included in the Lesser Antilles island chain. Its nearest neighbours are the island republics of Dominica, 22 miles (35 km) to the northwest, and Saint Lucia, 16 miles (26 km) to the south. Guadeloupe, also a French overseas département and région, lies about 75 miles (120 km) to the north. The name Martinique is probably a corruption of the Indian name Madiana (“Island of Flowers”) or Madinina (“Fertile Island with Luxuriant Vegetation”), as reputedly told to Christopher Columbus by the Caribs in 1502. The administrative capital and chief town is Fort-de-France. Area 436 square miles (1,128 square km). Pop. (2007 est.) 401,000. Land (Martinique) Martinique is about 50 miles (80 km) long and reaches a maximum width of 22 miles (35 km). Among the smallest of the French overseas territories, Martinique has one of the highest population densities in the Antilles. Relief and drainage The mountainous relief of Martinique takes the form of three principal massifs. These are an active volcano, Mount Pelée (Pelée, Mount), which rises to 4,583 feet (1,397 metres), to the north; the Carbet Mountains, of which Lacroix Peak reaches 3,923 feet (1,195 metres), in the centre; and Mount Vauclin, rising to 1,654 feet (504 metres), in the south. The tortuous relief of the island has created a complex drainage pattern characterized by short watercourses. In the south the Salée and Pilote rivers flow down from the slopes of Mount Vauclin. In the centre the rivers flow outward from the Carbet Mountains in a starlike pattern; they include the Lorrain, Galion, Capot, and Lézarde rivers. In the north the Grande, Céron, Roxelane, Pères, and Sèche rivers are little more than irregular torrents. The northern coastline of Martinique is characterized by steep cliffs; farther south, however, the cliffs become lower. There are two large bays—Fort-de-France and Marin—on the western coast. Coral reefs, headlands, and coves line the eastern coast. Climate The climate is remarkably constant, the average temperature being about 79 °F (26 °C), with average minimums of 68–72 °F (20–22 °C), average maximums of 86–90 °F (30–32 °C), and temperature extremes of 59 °F (15 °C) and 93 °F (34 °C). The northeast trade winds, which blow almost 300 days per year, temper the heat, but winds from the south are hot and humid and sometimes bring hurricanes. There are two distinct seasons—a relatively dry season, which lasts from December to June, and a rainy winter season from July to December. There is abundant precipitation, especially in July and September, but it is irregularly distributed, varying from about 40 inches (1,000 mm) to almost 400 inches (10,000 mm) per year, depending on elevation and landforms. Plant and animal life The climate, together with the fertile volcanic soil, produces a luxuriant flora in four vegetational zones: the maritime zone, the lowlands, the former forest zone, and the upper mountain slopes. The maritime zone includes an enormous mangrove swamp, half of which is located in the bay of Fort-de-France. Morning glories, tropical twining herbs, and sea grapes inhabit the beaches. The lowland vegetation zone, extending from the coast to an elevation of about 1,500 feet (460 metres), has ferns and orchids, as well as various trees, including mahogany, white gum, and other species. Above 1,500 feet is the former virgin forest zone, where large trees and bracken are still found. As elevation increases the trees grow smaller. A transitional zone is characterized by peat moss. Above about 3,000 feet (900 metres) the upper slopes are almost bare, except for some stunted forest. Forests cover about one-fourth of the total land area. There are relatively few kinds of animals on the island. The mongoose was introduced in the 19th century in the hope of eliminating the deadly rat-tailed viper, but the plan was unsuccessful. Also found are manicons (a kind of opossum), wild rabbits, wild pigeons, turtledoves, and ortolans, which are small birds that are often netted and fattened as a table delicacy. People (Martinique) The original Carib Indian population disappeared after Europeans arrived, partly as a result of disease, conflicts with the Europeans, and assimilation. In 1658 French settlers on the island numbered about 5,000. Slaves brought from Africa added a further ethnic component. Today people of mixed European and African ancestry account for more than nine-tenths of the population, but the island's economy is largely controlled by the small proportion of people of European descent. A small fraction of the population is descended from labourers brought from the Indian subcontinent. A creole (creole languages) similar to that spoken in Haiti is commonly heard, but French is the official language. The majority of the population is Roman Catholic; there are smaller numbers of Protestants (mostly Seventh-day Adventists), other Christians, and adherents of other religions. Some people incorporate elements of Vodou (Voodoo) into their beliefs. The population of Martinique increased rapidly until the late 1970s, when, plagued by unemployment and other economic maladies, the residents of the island began to emigrate in large numbers to France and in smaller numbers to French Guiana. About one-fourth of the total population lives in Fort-de-France, and nearly the entire population lives in urban areas. Economy Martinique has a typically Caribbean economy, depending heavily on a few agricultural products and tourism and relying on outside sources, principally France, for aid. A large trade deficit and a high rate of unemployment are major impediments to economic progress. Nevertheless, the island enjoys one of the higher standards of living in the Caribbean, partly due to a wage scale linked to that of metropolitan France. Agriculture and fishing The principal agricultural products are sugarcane and bananas, the latter grown chiefly for export. Sugarcane is mainly used to produce rum, which is also exported. Fresh and canned pineapples and pineapple juice, cut flowers, avocados, eggplants, and citrus fruits are other exports. Grown for the domestic market are yams, cassava, sweet potatoes, and breadfruits. Crabs, lobsters, clams, cod, and crayfish are fished mainly for local consumption. The widespread destruction of banana plantations caused by occasional hurricanes has created major setbacks. Manufacturing Significant manufactures include cement, processed sugar and rum, clothing, fabricated metals, and yawls and other small craft. There is an important oil refinery at Fort-de-France. Other industries include rum distilling, fish and fruit canning, sugar refining, the processing of cattle feed, soft drinks, and food, and the manufacture of pottery, wooden furniture, and chemicals. The government has promoted light manufacturing, and the construction of yachts and sport boats is of growing importance. Tourism and trade One of the most popular tourist areas in the Caribbean, Martinique has a flourishing cruise ship business that brings tourists mainly from France, Canada, and the United States. Martinique's economy is heavily dependent on trade with France, which provides the majority of the island's imports and exports. The value of imports far surpasses that of exports, resulting in large trade deficits. Exports include agricultural products (significantly bananas), refined petroleum products, and processed foods and beverages (notably rum). Chief imports are agricultural implements and machinery, food, automobiles, mineral fuels, and chemicals and chemical products. Transportation Martinique maintains regular air and sea links with France and North America. The main port is Fort-de-France. There is an international airport at Lamentin, to the east of Fort-de-France. An expressway links Fort-de-France with coastal towns. There are local bus services, and small coastal steamers connect various points around the island. Government and society As an overseas département and région, Martinique is divided into four arrondissements and subdivided into cantons and communes, each of which is administered by an elected municipal council. The French state is represented by an appointed prefect and three regional subprefects, and there are two elected legislative councils; the General Council and the Regional Council, the presidents of which share executive authority in the département. Martinique is represented in the French National Assembly, in the French Senate, on the French Economic and Social Council, and in the European Parliament. Justice The French system of justice is in force. The Court of Appeal at Fort-de-France also has jurisdiction over French Guiana. There are two lower courts (tribunaux d'instance), one higher court (tribunal de grande instance), one administrative court, and a commercial court. Health and welfare There are several general and maternity hospitals, as well as some dispensaries. Martinique receives the same social benefits as mainland France. Education Education is free and compulsory for children between 6 and 16 years of age. There are primary, secondary, and vocational schools. The vast majority of the people are literate. Higher education is usually pursued in metropolitan France; a number of scholarships are available. The Martinique campus of the University of the Antilles and Guiana is in a suburb of Fort-de-France. Cultural life The pre-Lenten carnival of Fort-de-France, featuring a parade with elaborate masks, is an annual event. Vodou (Voodoo) ceremonies are sometimes held, though they are far less important in Martinique than they are in Haiti. Cockfighting is a popular sport. Sites of historical interest include the Pagerie Museum, the reconstructed birthplace of Empress Joséphine, consort of Napoleon I, in Les Trois-Îlets. Joséphine was born in 1763 to a Martinique planter named Joseph Tascher de La Pagerie. History (Martinique) Early period Carib Indians inhabited the island at the time Christopher Columbus (Columbus, Christopher) sighted it in 1493. It was not until 1502, on his fourth voyage, that he visited the island, leaving some pigs and goats there. Neglected by the Spaniards, who sought more material rewards than those the island offered, Martinique was occupied in 1635 by a Frenchman, Pierre Bélain, sieur (lord) d'Esnambuc (Bélain, Pierre, sieur d'Esnambuc), who established 80 settlers at Fort-Saint-Pierre at the mouth of the Roxelane River. A year later d'Esnambuc, who had fallen ill, entrusted Martinique to his nephew, Jacques-Dyel du Parquet, who bought the island from the Compagnie des Îles d'Amérique and developed it into a remarkably prosperous colony. In 1654 a group of 250 Dutch Jews, whom Portuguese forces had ousted from Brazil, introduced sugarcane. Cotton was another early introduction. About 1660 the first cacao (the source of chocolate) plantation was established. French rule After the death of du Parquet, his widow governed the island in the name of her children, but her policies were often opposed by the settlers. In 1658 the French king, Louis XIV, resumed sovereignty over the island and paid an indemnity to du Parquet's children. In 1664 the island was placed under the authority of the Compagnie des Indes Occidentales (West Indies Company); in 1674 it was made part of the French crown domain and was administered according to the Pacte Colonial, a body of principles summarized in the statement “The mother country founds and maintains the colonies; the colonies enrich the mother country.” Supplies and slaves were transported to the French Antilles by the Compagnie du Sénégal, founded in 1664; the slave ships called at Martinique before proceeding to Guadeloupe, permitting the colony first choice of the slaves. In 1723 coffee was introduced from Arabia, thus further contributing to the island's prosperity. In 1787 Louis XVI granted Martinique the right to establish a colonial assembly. At various times Martinique was attacked by foreign fleets. An attack by the Dutch was repulsed in 1674; further assaults by the British were repelled in 1693 and 1759. In 1762, however, the British captured the island, only to return it to France under the terms of the Treaty of Paris (Paris, Treaty of) in 1763. The British recaptured it in 1794 and occupied it until 1802; after having been captured once more by the British in 1809, it was definitively restored to France in 1814. Slave uprisings occurred in 1789, 1815, and 1822. Following the abolition of slavery in 1848, plantation owners imported workers from India and China in order to avoid paying high labour costs. Universal suffrage was proclaimed in 1848 but was abolished under Napoleon III; after 1870 the Third Republic of France restored representation for the island in the French Parliament. In 1902 the volcanic eruption of Mount Pelée (Pelée, Mount) destroyed the town of Saint-Pierre, killing about 30,000 people. During World War II Martinique adhered to the Vichy government of Nazi-occupied France for three years before rallying to the Free French cause in 1943. In 1946 Martinique was granted the status of a French département, and in 1974 it was made a région. Developments since World War II The postwar politics of Martinique, which was more vociferous in its demands for independence than Guadeloupe, was influenced by Aimé Césaire (Césaire, Aimé), the Martiniquais writer who was one of the founders of the Negritude movement. Césaire, first elected as a deputy in 1946, had originally been a member of the Communist Party, but by 1956 he had resigned and formed his own party, the Progressive Party of Martinique. In 1957 Césaire's party won the Martinique elections by an enormous margin, and it seemed that independence would be achieved. Martinique's economy was depressed, however, and massive unemployment worked against the independence movement. Emigration to France and French foreign aid had always been palliatives for Martinique's economic problems, and demands for independence resulted only in Martinique's being given greater autonomy. Unrest continued, and by the late 1970s the French government, in an apparent about-face, decided to help Martinique become economically self-sufficient in preparation for independence. Economic problems were exacerbated by the widespread destruction from hurricanes in 1979 and 1980. Liberation groups were responsible in the 1980s for several bombings in Paris and the French Caribbean islands. Some movement toward autonomy came with France's decentralization law of 1982, under which executive power in the overseas départements devolved from the appointed prefect to the locally elected legislative councils. Over the next several years the local councils also gained greater control over the economy, police, and taxation. After 1986, pro-independence parties won progressively more seats on the legislative councils, in part because of apprehension over France's—and thus Martinique's—joining the European Union (EU). Although a plurality of the island's voters approved the Treaty on European Union in 1992, less than one-fourth of the electorate participated in the election. A subsequent wave of protests and work stoppages swept the island over fears that Martinique's farms and industries would lose the special protections they had enjoyed under French rule. In 1999 and 2000 the presidents of the Regional Councils of Martinique, Guadeloupe, and French Guiana proposed—and France's Parliament subsequently approved—a number of institutional and economic changes for the overseas départements, such as establishing congresses of the Regional and General Councils and granting greater autonomy in international relations. As part of a general reclassification of French overseas possessions in January 2007, Martinique received the combined designation of overseas département and région (DOM-ROM). Robert Cornevin Ed. Additional Reading Travel guides include Lynne M. Sullivan, Martinique and Guadeloupe Alive! (2002); and Douglas Stallings et al. (eds.), Fodor's 08 Caribbean (2007). Katherine E. Browne, Creole Economics: Caribbean Cunning Under the French Flag (2005), examines how the people of the French West Indies, especially Martinique, have incorporated “Frenchness” into their culture and economics. Alwyn Scarth, La Catastrophe: Mount Pelée and the Destruction of Saint-Pierre, Martinique (2002), gives a day-by-day account of the 1902 eruption.
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