The grandson of Adam Gottlob Moltke (Moltke, Adam Gottlob, Greve (count)), Moltke entered public life in 1809 as the assessor of the Supreme Court. After holding other government offices, he became minister of finance in 1831 under Frederick VI and president of the Rentekammer (department of finance) in 1845 under Christian VIII. When the new king, Frederick VII, renounced absolute rule in March 1848, a representative government was formed with Moltke as prime minister; under his ministry the constitution of June 5, 1849, was introduced. The fact that a distinguished statesman who had served the last two absolute kings of Denmark voluntarily accepted the prime ministership gave the new government prestige.

Moltke at first was responsible for finance, but in 1848 he exchanged that portfolio for foreign affairs and Schleswig. He gave up these responsibilities in 1850 and resigned as prime minister in January 1852. He was a member of the Landsting (upper house; 1849–60).