Niger extends for about 750 miles (1,200 kilometres) from north to south and about 930 miles from east to west. It tends to monotony in its features, is intersected by numerous depressions, and is dominated by arid highlands in the north. Rainfall increases as one proceeds southward so that the country divides naturally into three distinct zones—a desert zone in the north; an intermediate zone, where nomadic pastoralists raise cattle, in the centre; and a cultivated zone in the south. It is in this southern zone that the greater part of the population, both nomadic and settled, is concentrated.

The highlands of the north are cut by valleys (kori) of the Aïr massif, which is an extension of the Ahaggar (Hoggar) Mountains of Algeria, and consists of a range running north to south in the centre of Niger, with individual mountain masses forming separate “islands”: from north to south these are Tazerzaït, where Mount Gréboun reaches an altitude of 6,379 feet (1,944 metres); Tamgak; Takolokouzet; Angornakouer; Bagzane; and Tarouadji. To the northeast is a series of high plateaus, which form a bridge between the Ahaggar Mountains of Algeria and the Tibesti Mountains of Chad. From west to east these are the plateaus of Djado, Mangueni, and Tchigaï.

The sandy regions of the Nigerian Sahara extend to either side of the Aïr. To the west the Talak region includes the Tamesna area in the north (where fossil valleys are filled with moving sand dunes) and the Azaoua area in the south. East of the Aïr is the Ténéré region, covered partly by an expanse of sand called an erg, partly by a stony plain called a reg.

The plateaus of the south, which form a belt about 900 miles long, may be divided into three regions. To the west is the Djerma Ganda region. Its large valleys are filled with sand, while dallol (fossilized valleys of rivers that formed tributaries of the Niger in ancient times) descend from the Aïr and the Iforas Massif of neighbouring Mali. The central region consists of the rocky Adar Doutchi and Majia areas; it is the region of the gulbi (dried-up valleys of former tributaries of the Sokoto River) and the Tegama—a tableland of sandstone, ending, toward the Aïr, at the Tiguidit scarp. To the east the underlying rock reappears in the Damagarim, Mounio, and Koutous regions, to the north of which is the region of Damergou, consisting of clays. In the Manga region, in the east, traces of ancient watercourses appear on the sandy plain.

It is convenient to make a distinction between the ancient hydrographic system, which allowed agriculturalists, fishermen, and pastoralists to live in the Aïr region about 5,000 or 6,000 years ago, and the present simple system, which forms the basis of the marked difference between the northern and southern parts of the country. The present system includes to the west the Niger River basin and to the east the basin of Lake Chad; between the two occur vestiges of the older system, such as the dallol and the gulbi.

To the west the Niger River crosses about 350 miles of Niger's territory. Because of the change in river flow, which occurs because of the dispersal of its waters in its interior delta region in Mali, it is only in January and February that it flows past Niamey in flood. At other times the river is fed by certain temporary watercourses that flow in from the right bank. These are the Gorouol, the Dargol, the Sirba, the Goroubi, the Djamangou, the Tapoa, and the Mékrou; the last two flow through the “W” National Park (so called because the Niger flows through the area in the form of a W). On the left bank, proceeding eastward, appear the dallol, the vestiges of the older watercourses. Generally running from north to south, they constitute zones of dampness, although a few still contain waters that flow toward the Niger. The best known are the Bosso, the Foga, and the Maouri wadis. Other vestiges consist of the kori, which run down from the Aïr and from former tributaries that had their sources in the Iforas Massif, and which flowed to a confluence at what is now the Ti-m-merhsoï Wadi. No waters flow through the kori now, but water is still to be found beneath their sands. Other remnants of the old system are formed by the gulbi, through which water still flows annually, occasionally causing damage.

To the east is situated the basin of Lake Chad (Chad, Lake), a large, shallow lake, which at its highest contemporary level has an area of approximately 9,650 square miles; of this, Niger possesses about 1,100 square miles. Its extent is considerably reduced during the dry season. The Komadougou Yobé River, which flows into Lake Chad from the west, forms part of the frontier between Niger and Nigeria. Its water level, which begins to rise in August, from January to May consists only of some stagnant pools.

In addition to the drainage system described, it may be noted that rainwater collects in several basins, so that some permanent lakes or pools also exist; these are found at Keïta and Adouna in the Adar Doutchi region, at Madaroumfa in the Maradi gulbi, and at Guidimouni to the east of Zinder. The water table in some areas can also be tapped to produce artesian wells.

The soils fall into three natural regions. In the Saharan (Sahara) region in the north the soil is infertile, except in a few oases where water is found. In the region known as the Sahel, which forms a transitional zone between the Sahara and the region to the south, the soils are thin and white, being covered with salty deposits resulting from intense evaporation that forms an infertile surface crust. The third region (in the south) is cultivated. In this area the soils are associated with extensive dunes or uplands or with basins or depressions. Some of the soils in the latter, such as those in the Niger basin and in the gulbi, are rich. Black soils occur in the Kolo basin. Throughout the region, however, and above all on the plateaus, less fertile lateritic (leached iron-bearing) soils occur.

Niger extends southward from the tropic of Cancer, and the northern two-thirds of its territory lies in dry tropical desert. In the southern part of the country the climate is of the type known as Sahelian, which is characterized by a single, short rainy season. In January and February the continental equivalent of the northeast trade winds, the harmattan, blows southwestward from the Sahara toward the equator. Typically dust-laden, dry, and desiccating, the harmattan hinders normal living conditions on the southern fringe of the desert. From April to May the southern trade winds (trade wind) blowing from the Atlantic reach the equator and are diverted toward the Sahara where they meet with the harmattan—an encounter that results in violent line squalls and that signals the beginning of the rainy season. The rains last from one to four months, according to the latitude; August is the rainy month everywhere except in the far north, where the rainfall is unpredictable.

Niger lies in one of the hottest regions of the world. Temperatures rise from February to May and drop during the “winter” rainy season, rising again somewhat before falling to their annual minimum averages in December or January. During May (the hottest month), afternoon temperatures are high everywhere, ranging from a low of about 108° F (42° C) at Nguigmi on Lake Chad to 113° F (45° C) at Bilma and Agadez, both in the northern desert. In January, afternoon temperatures average more than 90° F (mid-30s C) at most stations but at night may drop to freezing level in the desert. The daily range is greater in the desert north than in the south and is also more extreme during the dry season.

Rainfall varies according to location as well as season. The 10-inch isohyet (line on a map connecting points having equal rainfall) follows a line from near Tahoua to Gouré, in effect marking the northern limit of nomadic pastoral life, for the rainfall permits a sparse vegetation to grow. To the extreme south the 30-inch isohyet marks the southern limit of this zone, after which the southern agricultural zone begins. In the course of the same rainy season a most irregular spatial pattern of rainfall may occur, while from one year to another the total amount of rainfall may also vary; in addition, the rainy season itself may arrive early or late, thus jeopardizing crops.

The vegetation of the desert zone clusters around the oases; it includes the date palm and cultivated corn (maize). Animal life, which must be able to endure hunger and thirst, includes the dromedary.

In the Sahel zone, where the doum palm and the cram-cram (Cenchrus biflorus, a prickly grass) appear, the vegetation has a short life cycle and is principally used for grazing. Animal life includes the ostrich and the gazelle.

In the cultivated zone the vegetation includes acacia trees, doum palms, and palmyra palms, as well as baobabs. Wildlife, which has partially disappeared, includes antelope, elephants, and warthogs; giraffes are found in the Zarmaganda and Damergou regions, and hippopotamuses and crocodiles on the banks of the Niger. The extreme southwest is a savanna region where baobabs, kapok trees, and tamarind trees occur. Animal life is preserved in the “W” National Park, where antelope, lions, buffalo, hippopotamuses, and elephants may be seen.

The southern part of Niger's territory is situated in the vast region of Africa known as the Sudan, in which, in former times, large political states arose, such as Ghana, Mali, and Songhai, as well as the Hausa states, the empire of Sokoto, and Bornu. The northern part of Niger remains the domain of the Tuareg. The country comprises a multitude of traditional regions, the names of which remain despite the establishment of contemporary administrative divisions. All these regions have a fluctuating political, economic, and geographic significance: the Hausa regions, for example, have been cut in two and divided between Niger and Nigeria. Most regions, moreover, have been and remain zones where contact takes place between different peoples—between the Hausa and the Tuareg in the Adar Doutchi region, for example; between the Tuareg and the Kanuri in the Damergou region; and between Hausa and Zarma (Zerma, Djerma) in the Aréoua area.

About one-fifth of the population live in towns. The rural population comprises nomads and sedentary peoples. There are some 10,000 villages, of which approximately half have only a few hundred inhabitants; there are practically no villages in the desert zone. Fulani (Peul) herdsmen, who breed horned cattle and oxen, and the Tuareg, who raise goats, sheep, and dromedaries, tend to travel over the northern region during the winter. They meet together to permit the cattle to lick the salty soil of the In Gall region during August and September but move southward during the dry season. Both Fulani and Tuareg live in tribal groups, in temporary or portable shelters, and gain their subsistence from their livestock. The Fulani subsist above all on milk in various forms; the Tuareg live on meat and dates.

Sedentary peoples, such as the Hausa, the Songhai-Zarma, and the Kanuri, who inhabit the Niger and Chad basins, live largely by agriculture. They raise millet, rice, corn, peanuts (groundnuts), and cotton. They also work as blacksmiths and shoemakers, while on the banks of Lake Chad and the Niger the Buduma and Sorko peoples are fishermen. Sedentary peoples live in dwellings that vary from those made of straw to those made of banco (hardened mud), although the Wogo people live in tents of delicate matting.

There is a tendency among the nomads to settle down, and the already sedentary peoples are expanding the lands under cultivation toward the north. Rural life, above all in its sedentary form, tends to slow its pace during the long dry season; it is at this time of year that migration to the towns or other countries occurs.

It was approximately in the 15th century that a few towns, such as Agadez or Zinder, were first established as halting places, or depots, on the trans-Saharan caravan routes. As commercial routes gradually developed on the coasts, however, these northern towns lost their former economic importance, while other centres, such as Birni Nkonni, and Tessaoua, declined in the course of the 19th century as a result of the colonial era.

There are four principal towns in Niger. Niamey, the political capital, has experienced rapid growth. It has a cosmopolitan character and a transient population. Its characteristic life varies between the European and African rural styles, including various intermediate steps, of which the life-style of the évolués (educated Africans) is the most distinctive. Zinder, for which the African name is Damagaram, is an older town than Niamey; a Hausa town, it was the capital of Niger until 1926 and has a number of skilled craftsmen, especially leatherworkers and dyers. The town has experienced some industrial growth and has close links with Nigeria. Maradi has developed rapidly. The town is situated in the heart of the peanut-growing region near the Nigerian frontier. Many European companies have established branches there; the town is particularly renowned for its red goats, the skins of which are exported to Europe and the Americas. Tahoua has grown up on the edge of the desert. There it forms a large livestock market, where pastoralists and farmers meet. All of the towns remain little more than modest administrative and commercial centres, but because of the discovery of uranium ore Agadez has experienced a spectacular growth.

The largest linguistic group is formed by the Hausa (Hausa language), whose language, also spoken in Nigeria (Niger), is one of the most important in western Africa. A large percentage of the inhabitants of Niger understand Hausa, which possesses an abundant literature that has been printed in Latin characters in Nigeria. Songhai (Songhai languages) is the second most important language; it is also spoken in Mali, in northern Burkina Faso, and in northern Benin. In Niger itself it is divided into various dialects, such as Songhai proper, Zarma, and Dendi. The language of the Fulani is Fula; in Niger it has two dialects, eastern and western, the demarcation line between them running through the Boboye district. Tamashek is the language of the Tuareg, who often call themselves the Kel Tamagheq, or Tamashek speakers. The language is also spoken in Algeria and Mali and possesses its own writing, called tifinagh, which is in widespread use. Kanuri (Kanuri language) is spoken not only in Niger but also in Cameroon and Nigeria; the tongue is called Beriberi by the Hausa. While these five languages are the principal ones spoken in Niger, there is also an important Teda (Teda language) linguistic group in the Tibesti region. In addition, many of the peoples of Niger speak Arabic (Arabic language), and a still larger number read and write in that language; Agadez possesses one of the oldest Arabic schools in Africa. The use of the Arabic alphabet resulted in Fula and Hausa becoming written languages; the script is called ajami; a search for more old manuscripts in ajami is being conducted.

By using Hausa and Songhai, one may make oneself understood from one end of the country to the other. French (French language), however, remains the official language, as well as the language of instruction, although it remains understood only by a small minority. English is taught as the principal foreign language in secondary schools.

Ethnic groups correspond to the five linguistic groups already mentioned. The Hausa are the largest group, constituting more than half of the present population, though the majority of the Hausa people live in Nigeria. The Hausa occupy the centre of southern Niger as far as Dogondoutchi. The Songhai-Zarma (Songhai) are found in the southwest; the Songhai proper live along the Niger, where they are assimilating the Kurtey and Wogo peoples. The majority of the Songhai people as a whole, however, live in Mali. The Zarma live on the left bank of the Niger, remaining in close contact with the Mauri and Arewa peoples. The Fulani, who are dispersed throughout the country, are mostly nomadic; they are also found dispersed throughout western Africa. The Tuareg, also nomadic, are divided into three subgroups—the Iullemmiden of the Azaouak region in the west, the Asben (Kel Aïr) in the Aïr region, and the Itesen (Kel Geres) to the south and east of Aïr. The Tuareg people are also found in Algeria and in Mali. The Kanuri, who live to the east of Zinder, are divided into a number of subgroups—the Manga, the Dogara (Dagara), the Mober, the Buduma, and the Kanembu; they are also found living in Chad, Cameroon, and Nigeria. Apart from the nomadic Teda of the Tibesti region, who constitute an important minority, the remainder of the population consists of Arabs, black Africans from other countries, and Europeans, of whom the greater part are French.

More than 95 percent of the population adhere to the Sunnite branch of Islām. Although the Annaawaa group of Hausa have always refused to accept Islām, as have a group of Fulani, the Wodaabe—who distinguish themselves from other Fulani for this reason—Islām remains the religion of the majority of both Hausa and Fulani. Christianity (Roman Catholicism and Protestantism) remains a religion of the towns, particularly of Niamey. There are several Christian missions in the Songhai and Arewa areas. Christianity is primarily a European religion, although it is also practiced by some black Africans from other countries. The traditional animist religions of the black Africans continue to manifest themselves in strength.

The economic system is based upon planning but accords an important role to private enterprise. The three main policy objectives are the maintenance of national unity, the elevation of the living standards of the population, and the attainment of economic independence. The private sector of the economy consists partly of a multitude of small enterprises and partly of enterprises belonging to large French or international companies. The government, through the agency of the Development Bank of the Republic of Niger, which is funded partly by aid from abroad, has promoted the establishment of many companies, including real estate, road transport, air transport, and agricultural processing enterprises.

Niger is encouraging economic links between African countries. Apart from its membership in the Organization of African Unity, Niger is a member—together with Côte d'Ivoire, Benin, Burkina Faso, and Togo—of the Conseil de l'Entente, a regional cooperative group, as well as of the Organisation Commune Africaine et Mauricienne, another group of French-speaking African states.

Salt is traditionally exploited in the Kaouar and Aïr regions, as well as in the dallol, and in the Manga district. Natron (hydrated sodium carbonate) is extracted locally. Cassiterite (an ore of tin) is mined at open workings in Aïr. Small quantities of gold are obtained by panning in the Sirba River. Limestone and an important deposit of gypsum have been located at Malbaza and in the Ader Doutchi and Majia region. Niger's known reserves of uranium rank among the most important in the world. Apart from tungsten in the Aïr region, traces of copper, lignite (a brownish black coal), molybdenum, zinc, phosphates, and titanium have been found and are the subject of further prospection. A reserve of iron ore, with an iron content of about 50 percent, has been located in the Say region; and petroleum deposits have been discovered in the Lake Chad area.

The exploitation of plant resources has long been practiced but on a small scale. The doum palm and the palmyra palm provide wood for construction, while the palms of the Manga oasis produce dates. Small amounts of kapok (a silky down from the kapok tree, used for insulation, life jackets, and so forth) and of gum from the acacia gum tree are exported. Skins of ostriches, crocodiles, and snakes are used for making handicrafts that are exported to Europe. Fish from the Niger River and Lake Chad are exported southward to the coastal countries.

Agriculture and agricultural products constitute the largest sector of Niger's economy in terms of the number of persons employed and the percentage of gross national product (GNP). Millet and sorghum, the main food crops, are grown in the south, as are cassava and sugarcane. Rice is grown in the Niger River valley. Peanuts are the most important cash crop; other important crops include cotton and pulses.

Livestock is an important sector of the agricultural economy and is a major export. Cattle, sheep, and goats are raised for meat, milk, and hides.

Niger's ability to remain self-sufficient in food and livestock production is closely linked to rainfall, and periods of drought have resulted in shortfalls requiring imports and food aid. To increase production and avoid cereal shortfalls, the government has invested in irrigation projects and an “off-season growing program” of small-scale production and irrigation operations.

Niger is one of the world's leading producers of uranium, which is mined at Arlit, Akouta, and Tassa. Extraction at the Arlit site is undertaken by the French-controlled Société des Mines de l'Aïr (SOMAIR). The second major mining concern, the Compagnie Minière d'Akouta (COMINAK), is owned partly by the government of Niger and partly by foreign interests. The Tassa mine opened in 1986 and is operated by SOMAIR. The uranium industry was seriously affected by the fall in uranium prices in the early 1980s. Development of additional sites is dependent upon an increase in world uranium prices.

Some manufacturing industries have been established, mostly at Niamey. They produce chemicals, food products, textiles, farm equipment, and metal furniture. There are many small craft industries in the principal towns.

Imported petroleum, supplemented by locally mined coal, is used to generate about half of Niger's electricity, and the remaining amount is imported from Nigeria. The Office of Solar Energy has produced solar batteries, which are used in the country's telecommunications network, and peanut shells have been experimentally used to supplement hydrocarbon fuels since 1968. Wood is the traditional domestic fuel.

While the economically active zone of Niger runs from east to west across the southern part of the country, the principal lines of communication run southward toward the coast. The two ports used by Niger—Cotonou in Benin and Lagos in Nigeria—are each more than 600 miles away, and Niger possesses no railroad. Traditional systems of transport and communication are still largely relied upon. These include camel caravans in the northern Sahel region, canoes on Lake Chad and the Niger, and individual travel on horseback or on foot. Only a small tonnage of goods is transported.

Trucks maintain transport communications between Maradi and Zinder in Niger and Kano in Nigeria, and between Niamey and Parakou in Benin. A road completed in 1981 connects the uranium-producing centres of Arlit and Akouta to Nigerian transport links. The principal west–east road axis enters the country from Gao in Mali, runs on the banks of the Niger as far as Niamey, and then continues eastward to Nguigmi on Lake Chad. From this central route, roads branch off southward. Toward the north, routes running via Tahoua and Tânout converge near Agadez, linking Niger to Algeria via Tamanrasset.

Air Niger is responsible for domestic air services linking the country's airports, including those of Tahoua, Maradi, Zinder, Agadez, Diffa, and Arlit. Niamey has an international airport.

Under the constitution of 1999, Niger is a republic. The president is head of state and is elected to a five-year term by popular vote. He appoints the prime minister and the Council of Ministers. Legislative power is vested in the unicameral National Assembly; members are popularly elected and serve five-year terms. Niger's judicial system comprises the High Court of Justice, Supreme Court, Constitutional Court, and Courts of First Instance.

For administrative purposes, Niger is divided into seven départements (departments)—Agadez, Diffa, Dosso, Maradi, Niamey, Tahoua, and Zinder—each of which is administered by a prefect. Each department is further divided into several districts, with each district led by a subprefect.

Education in Niger is free, but only a small proportion of children attend school. Primary and secondary schools and teacher-training colleges are the responsibility of the Ministry of National Education. Other ministries are responsible for technical education. Niger has one of the lowest adult literacy rates in western Africa, and literacy programs are conducted in the five principal African languages. Niamey has a university, and the Islamic University of Niger opened at Say in 1987.

The general state of health in the country is poor, and health care facilities are inadequate, especially in rural areas. The infant mortality rate, about 125 per 1,000 live births, is one of the highest in western Africa. Health services concentrate on the eradication of certain diseases in rural areas, as well as on health education. Campaigns have been successfully waged against sleeping sickness and meningitis, and vaccinations against smallpox and measles are administered. Other diseases, however, such as tuberculosis, malaria, and leprosy, remain endemic. Antituberculosis centres are located at Niamey, Zinder, and Tahoua. The lack of finances and shortage of trained personnel remain the principal obstacles to the improvement of health conditions.

Niger forms part of the vast Sahelian cultural region of western Africa. Although the influence of Islām is predominant, pre-Islāmic cultural traditions are also strong and omnipresent. Since independence, greater interest has been shown in the country's cultural heritage, particularly with respect to traditional architecture, handicrafts, dances, and music. With the assistance of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, a regional centre for the collection of oral traditions has been established at Niamey. An institution prominent in cultural life is the National Museum at Niamey.

One of the central themes of the history of Niger is the interaction between the Tuareg (and also Tubu) nomads of the vast Saharan north and the sedentary agriculturalists of the south—that is, the interaction between opposed yet complementary ways of life and civilizations. Among the agriculturalists the main ethnic groups are the Songhai-Zarma in the west, the Hausa in the centre, and the Kanuri in the east. The Hausa have always been the most numerous. They constitute nearly half of the total population of Niger.

In the 14th century (possibly also earlier and later) the Tuareg-controlled kingdom of Takedda, west of the Aïr Massif, played a prominent role in long-distance trade, notably owing to the importance of its copper mines. Copper was then used as a currency throughout western Africa. Archaeological evidence attests to the existence of communities of agriculturalists, probably Songhai-speaking, in this region, which is now desert, at the time of the kingdom of Takedda. Takedda was succeeded at an unknown date by the sultanate of Agadez.

For many centuries the southeastern third of present-day Niger constituted one of the most important provinces of the Kanuri empire of Bornu (Kanem-Bornu). The might of Bornu was based on the control of a number of salt-producing sites and of long-distance trade, notably along the string of oases between Lake Chad and the Fezzan via Kawar.

The great drought of about 1735–56—the prelude to the present dry cycle, which set in about 1880—had an adverse effect upon the natural environment. This may explain why both the communities of agriculturalists west of Aïr and the oases between Lake Chad and Kawar disappeared. It may perhaps also explain in part why the Tuareg were able to extend their control over a fair portion of the sedentary south.

At the time of the colonial conquest, the disparate regions the French molded into an entity known as Niger may be best described as an assemblage of peripheral borderlands. As borderlands, however, these regions had played a significant role as zones of refuge—the west after 1591 and the Moroccan conquest of the Songhai empire and the Hausa region much later, after the 1804 Fulani jihad in central Hausaland (i.e., present-day northern Nigeria). In both cases the refugees were people who had lost in the military conflicts, as well as the religious struggles, of their respective homelands. Thus both regions became bastions of “traditionalism” in the face of partly alien conquerors attempting to impose Islam.

The French conquest began in earnest only in 1899. It nearly met with disaster owing to the local population's determined resistance against the notorious expedition in 1899 led by the French officers Captain Paul Voulet and Captain Charles Chanoine. It was only in 1922, after the severe drought and famine of 1913–15 and the Tuareg uprising of 1916–17, that the French felt safe enough to establish a regular administration under civilian control. By then the power of the Tuareg had been broken.

As elsewhere, the peace in French West Africa (pax gallica) meant, among other things, the rapid spread of Islam, a steep demographic increase, and, although exclusively among the Hausa, the extension of cash crop cultivation. The Songhai-Zarma, on the other hand, responded to the French tax demands by engaging themselves as seasonal labourers in the coastal regions.

Through the reforms of 1946, France's African subjects were in theory granted full citizenship. Thus Niger, along with the other colonies (renamed “overseas territories”) in black Africa, was represented in the French parliament. Consultative-legislative assemblies were also set up locally. These reforms secured the ascent of a tiny new elite, the so-called évolués—i.e., those who had been trained in French schools. Many were descendants of former slaves, and most were Songhai-Zarma. Indeed, the people of the west had proved to be far more open to European influence than, for instance, the Hausa.

At least until 1954–55 the French administration (headed for 12 years by Governor Jean Toby) remained firmly in control of the political situation. The first local executive was established in 1957. Its head, the left-wing trade unionist Djibo Bakary, advocated a no vote in the referendum of 1958, but 72 percent of the votes cast were in favour of a continued link with France. Nevertheless, under Bakary's successor, his cousin and fellow Songhai-Zarma Hamani Diori (Diori, Hamani), independence was proclaimed on August 3, 1960.

Diori, who set up a single-party dictatorship, was toppled in a coup in 1974. There followed a military dictatorship headed first by Seyni Kountché (until his death in 1987) and then by Ali Seibou. Mahamane Ousmane of the Social Democratic Convention became president in the country's first multiparty presidential elections in 1993. Meanwhile, a Tuareg rebellion that had begun in the northern part of the country in the early 1990s gained momentum until a cease-fire agreement in 1995 ended much of the fighting. Ousmane was ousted in 1996 during a military coup led by Colonel Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara (Maïnassara, Ibrahim Baré). After a brief period of military rule, Maïnassara was elected president in elections marred by anomalies. Maïnassara's administration was not well-received, and in 1999 he was assassinated during a coup that was followed by a nine-month transitional government led by Major Daouda Malam Wanké and the National Reconciliation Council (Conseil de Reconciliation Nationale; CRN).

Later that year a new constitution was promulgated and elections were held, leading to the subsequent return to democratic government under President Mamadou Tandja of the National Movement for a Developing Society (Mouvement National pour une Société de Développement; MNSD).

At the beginning of the 21st century, increasing demand for the adoption of Islamic Sharīʿah law was the root of much conflict between Islamic activists and Nigeriens who were not in favour of the strict religious code. Niger struggled to maintain its fragile peace as well as to improve its dismal economic situation. Tandja's leadership was widely credited with bringing political stability to Niger, and he was reelected in 2004.

The issue of slavery—still prevalent in Niger and other West African countries despite the fact that it is illegal—was brought to the forefront in 2008 when the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Court of Justice found the Nigerien government guilty of failing to protect a woman from slavery by not enforcing the country's antislavery laws. Activists hailed the verdict as a historic human rights victory and hoped that the ruling would encourage the enforcement of antislavery laws not only in Niger but also in other West African countries bound by the ECOWAS ruling.

state, west-central Nigeria, bounded to the south by the Niger River. It is also bounded by the states of Kebbi and Zamfara to the north, Kaduna to the north and northeast, Kogi to the southeast, and Kwara to the south. The Abuja Federal Capital Territory is on Niger state's eastern border, and the Republic of Benin (Benin) is its western border. The landscape consists mostly of wooded savannas and includes the floodplains of the Kaduna River.

Slave raiding by the Fulani (Fulani empire) armies of the Kontagora and Nupe emirates in the 19th century severely depopulated the region, and the presence of the tsetse fly (which transmits trypanosomiasis, or sleeping sickness) has hindered resettlement. Niger province was created by the British in 1908 and called Nupe province from 1918 to 1926; it included the Abuja, Agaie, Bida, Kontagora, and Lapai emirates, the Gwari (Gbari), Kamuku, and Wushishi chiefdoms, and the Zuru federation. In 1967 Niger province became the southern part of North-Western state, and in 1976 it became Niger state (excluding the newly created Abuja Federal Capital Territory). In 1991 part of northwestern Kwara state, lying between the Niger River and the Republic of Benin, was added to Niger state.

Niger state is populated mainly by the Nupe people in the south, the Gwari in the east, the Busa in the west, and Kamberi (Kambari), Hausa, Fulani, Kamuku, and Dakarki (Dakarawa) in the north. Islam is the predominant religion. Most of the inhabitants are engaged in farming. Cotton, shea nuts, yams, and peanuts (groundnuts) are cultivated both for export and for domestic consumption. Sorghum, millet, cowpeas, corn (maize), tobacco, palm oil and kernels, kola nuts, sugarcane, and fish are also important in local trade. Paddy rice is widely grown as a cash crop in the floodplains of the Niger and Kaduna rivers, especially in the area around Bida. Cattle, goats, sheep, chickens, and guinea fowl are raised for meat. Pigs are raised around Minna for sale to southern Nigeria.

Gold, tin, iron, and quartz (used by the glass artisans in Bida) are mined mainly for local craftsmen. Pottery, brass work, glass manufactures, raffia articles, and locally dyed cloth are significant exports. Marble is quarried at Kwakuti, near Minna, the state capital; and Minna has a brick-making factory. Niger state has a share in all three dams of the Niger Dams Project, including one at Shiroro Gorge on the Kaduna River and one at Jebba (in Kwara state), the reservoir of which lies partly in Niger state. The Kainji Dam (1969) and part of its reservoir, Kainji Lake, also lie in the state. Besides generating hydroelectric power, these dams sustain irrigation projects, and fishing has developed as an industry on their reservoirs. Most of Kainji Lake National Park (formerly Borgu Game Reserve) is in Niger state.

Minna and Bida are the state's chief towns and also the main education centres, with teacher-training colleges, a polytechnic institute in Bida, and a federal university of technology in Minna. Near Bida there is a rice research institute and an agricultural research station. A railway from Lagos traverses Niger state. The main highway system runs north of the railway and serves the market towns of Mokwa, Kontagora, Tegina, Kagara, and Kusheriki. The state's other large towns are served by networks of local roads. Area 29,484 square miles (76,363 square km) Pop. (2006) 3,950,249.