the body of writings by the Norwegian people.

The roots of Norwegian literature reach back more than 1,000 years into the pagan Norse past. In its evolution Norwegian literature was closely intertwined with Icelandic literature and with Danish literature. Only after the separation of Norway from Denmark in 1814 is it possible to point to a literature that is unambiguously Norwegian. This article focuses on literature produced from the 16th century onward by writers of Norwegian birth in Bokmål (Dano-Norwegian; also called Riksmål) and, later, Nynorsk (New Norwegian). Because Norwegian literature and Icelandic literature are often indistinguishable in their earliest forms, both are discussed together under Icelandic literature. Writers of Norwegian birth who produced works in Danish are discussed both in this article and under Danish literature.

Political union between Denmark and Norway started in 1380, and Danish eventually became the official language and the most widely used literary medium. Copenhagen, with its university, established itself as the cultural capital of the two countries. Not until after the Reformation were there signs of significant literary activity in Norway itself—for example, Om Norgis rige (“Concerning the Kingdom of Norway”), a nostalgic apologia for Norway written in 1567 by Absalon Pederssøn Beyer (Beyer, Absalon Pederssøn). The most original and most conspicuously Norwegian writer of this age was Petter Dass (Dass, Petter), whose Nordlands trompet (The Trumpet of Nordland) gives a lively picture in verse of the life of a clergyman and his part of the country; although probably completed before the turn of the century, this work was not printed until 1739.

After the signing of a new constitution in 1814, an exciting and difficult age began for Norway: an opportunity seemed to be offered to develop an independent Norwegian culture and way of life, but there were deep differences of opinion as to how this could best be achieved. Johan Sebastien Cammermeyer Welhaven (Welhaven, Johan Sebastian Cammermeyer) was the chief representative of those who insisted that the existing Danish element in the culture should not be neglected. Henrik Wergeland (Wergeland, Henrik Arnold) was a spokesman for those whose nationalistic pride led them, on the other hand, to demand a complete break with Denmark. Welhaven stood for a coolly intellectual approach, for restraint and control, and for conscious artistry, as his own sonnet cycle Norges dæmring (1834; “The Dawn of Norway”) exemplifies. Wergeland was more passionate and revolutionary, and his enormous epic Skabelsen, mennesket og messias (1830; “Creation, Humanity and Messiah”) typified the spirit he admired.

Wergeland dominated the age as a poet, orator, and social reformer, and the clash between him and Welhaven and between the two factions associated with them—the “patriots” and the “intelligentsia”—began an ideological conflict that persisted throughout the century.

The literature of the 1870s emphasized individual development and expression in keeping with the optimistic attitude of the times to social change and improvement. In the following decade, growing skepticism and disillusionment made writers more bitter in their attacks on “established” social institutions. The publication of Fra Kristiania-Bohêmen (“From the Christiania Bohemia”) in 1885 by Hans Henrik Jæger (Jæger, Hans Henrik) created, by its seeming advocacy of sexual license, a public scandal. The most extreme exponent of naturalism was Amalie Skram (Skram, Amalie), especially in the four-volume novel Hellemyrsfolket (1887–98; “The People of Hellemyr”). Arne Evensen Garborg (Garborg, Arne Evensen)—a poet, novelist, dramatist, and critic—was a superb writer whose work reflected successive movements of Romanticism, realism, naturalism, and Neoromanticism. His wider reputation was first established with a novel, Bondestudentar (1883; “Peasant Students”), but perhaps his greatest achievement was the poem cycle Haugtussa (1895).

The real achievements of Norwegian literature in the first half of the 20th century were in the novel and lyric poetry. Drama was not conspicuous, except for the plays of Heiberg and Nordahl Grieg (Grieg, Nordahl). In the early decades of the century, regionalism was a strong element, particularly in the novel; and authors adopted language coloured by dialect, thus becoming identified with their region. Kristofer Uppdal (Uppdal, Kristofer Oliver), of the midnorth region of Trøndelag, wrote a remarkable work—a 10-volume novel cycle, Dansen gjenom skuggeheimen (1911–24; “The Dance Through the Shadow World”). The novel also considered conflicts arising from the spread of industrialism, which Norway underwent later than did other European countries. The novelist and dramatist Oskar Braaten (Braaten, Oskar) was closely affiliated with the labour movement, while Johan Falkberget (Falkberget, Johan Petter) wrote with understanding and historical insight about the miners in Røros in the trilogy Christianus Sextus (1927–35) and in Nattens brød (1940; “Bread of Night”). Sigrid Undset (Undset, Sigrid), who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1928, set her novels in many different ages, and their concern was to examine women's loyalties within the framework of their role in society. A long historical novel, Kristin Lavransdatter (1920–22), is a masterpiece of Norwegian literature. Her later novels, Gymnadenia (1929; The Wild Orchid) and Den brændende busk (1930; The Burning Bush), were overtly influenced by her conversion to Roman Catholicism. Olav Duun (Duun, Olav), also of the midnorth region, revealed his insight into life as endless conflict in a six-volume novel cycle about the development of a peasant family through four generations—Juvikfolke (1918–23; The People of Juvik).

Among the Scandinavian countries, Norway had some of the most painful experiences of World War II, which were widely reflected in the country's postwar literature. While Finns, whose country also suffered greatly during the war, tended to concentrate on realistic depictions of the war itself, Norwegian authors focused on the nature of evil. Jens Bjørneboe (Bjørneboe, Jens) did so in his novels (e.g., Før hanen galer 【1952; “Before the Cock Crows”】) and plays in a very concrete and drastic manner. In later works, such as Frihetens øyeblikk (1966; Moment of Freedom), he probed the nature of evil across all of Western civilization. In her early short stories Torborg Nedreaas, also a politically committed author, retold stories from the war years, but she did so from a woman's point of view. However, it was her Musikk fra en blå brønn (1960; Music from a Blue Well), about a young girl's growing up, that brought her fame. Her focus remained always on the societal forces bearing down on the vulnerable individual.

Another important postwar literary figure was Johan Borgen (Borgen, Johan), a novelist and short-story writer. Like Sandemose, he explored the darker sides of the human psyche and, in particular, the process of identity formation. He is best known for the Lillelord trilogy (1955–57; Eng. trans. in 1 vol. as Lillelord). Jeg (1959; “I”) is more experimental in form but continues Lillelord's exploration of the question of identity in a self-reflexive manner.

Rolf Jacobsen was one of the early modernists in Norwegian poetry. As early as the 1930s he used free verse and vivid images to express his concerns—such as his worries, especially in the 1970s, about the destruction of the environment—which were remarkably modern and account for his lasting popularity. The real champion of lyric modernism, however, was Paal Brekke, who from the late 1940s assailed the materialistic values of affluent Western society. Other notable modernists include Olav H. Hauge, writing in Nynorsk about everyday life, and Stein Mehren, a philosophical poet, essayist, and painter. Inger Hagerup and Marie Takvam are both best known for stylistically traditional love poems; Hagerup is also known for her poems written for children.

As in other European countries, the late 1960s and '70s saw in Norway the rise of a new generation of radical writers advocating politically engaged, socially revolutionary literature. This so-called Profil group, named after a journal, included Tor Obrestad, Dag Solstad (Solstad, Dag), Espen Haavardsholm, and Edvard Hoem. Many of their novels freely mixed documentary materials with fiction, as in Obrestad's Sauda! Streik! (1972; “Sauda! Strike!”), but what united them all was a shared belief in the Maoist interpretation of Marxism-Leninism. In later works their tone changed. Some, like Solstad in Roman 1987 (1987; “Novel”), gave an accounting of the earlier era. Others, like Hoem, also a playwright, returned to the traditional novel (Frøken Dreyers musikkskole 【2000; “Miss Dreyer's Music School”】). Øystein Lønn, who debuted in the 1960s, critiqued modern society in novels and short stories characterized by their precise language, black humour, and open endings.

Lars Saabye Christensen, who first gained popularity with his novel Beatles (1984), won high praise for Halvbroren (2001; The Half Brother), a novel chronicling a family's fate over several generations; its style successfully combined realistic narration with the fantastic. Jan Kjærstad's breakthrough novel Homo Falsus; eller, det perfekte mord (1984; “Homo Falsus; or, The Perfect Murder”) exhibited postmodern features; his three-part “biography” of a fictional television celebrity, Jonas Wergeland, demonstrated how a skillful application of postmodernist strategies could lead to an exciting, multidimensional portrait of not just an individual but an entire epoch. Three very different women authors are Bjørg Vik, a short-story writer who portrayed, from a feminist viewpoint, the lives of contemporary women in their efforts to cope with societal demands, new freedoms, and their own emotional desires; Herbjørg Wassmo, whose Tora and Dina trilogies became best sellers in the 1980s and '90s; and Cecilie Løveid, a postmodernist poet and playwright, one of the few who successfully challenged the Ibsenite tradition in drama. She probed the potential for love, family, and close human relationships in modern society. Her works are playful and rich in imagery, humour, and sensuality; they traverse various genres and art forms but always with women as protagonists. Jon Fosse is a playwright with an international reputation.