This article covers the chemistry of nucleic acids, describing the structures and properties that allow them to serve as the transmitters of genetic information. For a discussion of the genetic code, see heredity, and for a discussion of the role played by nucleic acids in protein synthesis, see metabolism.

Nucleotides are synthesized from readily available precursors in the cell. The ribose phosphate portion of both purine and pyrimidine nucleotides is synthesized from glucose via the pentose phosphate pathway. The six-atom pyrimidine ring is synthesized first and subsequently attached to the ribose phosphate. The two rings in purines are synthesized while attached to the ribose phosphate during the assembly of adenine or guanine nucleosides. In both cases the end product is a nucleotide carrying a phosphate attached to the 5′ carbon on the sugar. Finally, a specialized enzyme called a kinase adds two phosphate groups using adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as the phosphate donor to form ribonucleoside triphosphate, the immediate precursor of RNA. For DNA, the 2′-hydroxyl group is removed from the ribonucleoside diphosphate to give deoxyribonucleoside diphosphate. An additional phosphate group from ATP is then added by another kinase to form a deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate, the immediate precursor of DNA.

During normal cell metabolism, RNA is constantly being made and broken down. The purine and pyrimidine residues are reused by several salvage pathways to make more genetic material. Purine is salvaged in the form of the corresponding nucleotide, whereas pyrimidine is salvaged as the nucleoside.

The double helical structure of normal DNA takes a right-handed form called the B-helix. The helix makes one complete turn approximately every 10 base pairs. B-DNA has two principal grooves, a wide major groove and a narrow minor groove. Many proteins interact in the space of the major groove, where they make sequence-specific contacts with the bases. In addition, a few proteins are known to make contacts via the minor groove.

Several structural variants of DNA are known. In A-DNA, which forms under conditions of high salt concentration and minimal water, the base pairs are tilted and displaced toward the minor groove. Left-handed Z-DNA forms most readily in strands that contain sequences with alternating purines and pyrimidines. DNA can form triple helices when two strands containing runs of pyrimidines interact with a third strand containing a run of purines.

B-DNA is generally depicted as a smooth helix; however, specific sequences of bases can distort the otherwise regular structure. For example, short tracts of A residues interspersed with short sections of general sequence result in a bent DNA molecule. Inverted base sequences, on the other hand, produce cruciform structures with four-way junctions that are similar to recombination intermediates. Most of these alternative DNA structures have only been characterized in the laboratory, and their cellular significance is unknown.

Naturally occurring DNA molecules can be circular or linear. The genomes of single-celled bacteria and archaea (the prokaryotes (prokaryote)), as well as the genomes of mitochondria and chloroplasts (chloroplast) (certain functional structures within the cell), are circular molecules. In addition, some bacteria and archaea have smaller circular DNA molecules called plasmids (plasmid) that typically contain only a few genes. Many plasmids are readily transmitted from one cell to another. For a typical bacterium, the genome that encodes all of the genes of the organism is a single contiguous circular molecule that contains 0.5 million to 5 million base pairs. The genomes of most eukaryotes (eukaryote) and some prokaryotes contain linear DNA molecules called chromosomes (chromosome). Human DNA, for example, consists of 23 pairs of linear chromosomes containing 50 million to 250 million base pairs.

Most prokaryote viruses (virus) contain linear genomes that typically are much shorter and contain only the genes necessary for viral propagation. Bacterial viruses called bacteriophages (bacteriophage) (or phages) may contain both linear and circular forms of DNA. For instance, the genome of bacteriophage λ (lambda), which infects the bacterium Escherichia coli (coliform bacteria), contains 48,502 base pairs and can exist as a linear molecule packaged in a protein coat. The DNA of phage λ can also exist in a circular form (as described in the section Site-specific recombination (nucleic acid)) that is able to integrate into the circular genome of the host bacterial cell. Both circular and linear genomes are found among eukaryotic viruses, but they more commonly use RNA as the genetic material.

The strands of the DNA double helix are held together by hydrogen bonding interactions between the complementary base pairs. Heating DNA in solution easily breaks these hydrogen bonds, allowing the two strands to separate—a process called denaturation or melting (melting point). The two strands may reassociate when the solution cools, reforming the starting DNA duplex—a process called renaturation or hybridization. These processes form the basis of many important techniques for manipulating DNA. For example, a short piece of DNA called an oligonucleotide can be used to test whether a very long DNA sequence has the complementary sequence of the oligonucleotide embedded within it. Using hybridization, a single-stranded DNA molecule can capture complementary sequences from any source. Single strands from RNA can also reassociate. DNA and RNA single strands can form hybrid molecules that are even more stable than double-stranded DNA. These molecules form the basis of a technique that is used to purify and characterize messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules corresponding to single genes.

DNA melting and reassociation can be monitored by measuring the absorption of ultraviolet (UV) light at a wavelength of 260 nanometres (billionths of a metre). When DNA is in a double-stranded conformation, absorption is fairly weak, but when DNA is single-stranded, the unstacking of the bases leads to an enhancement of absorption called hyperchromicity. Therefore, the extent to which DNA is single-stranded or double-stranded can be determined by monitoring UV absorption.

After a DNA molecule has been assembled, it may be chemically modified—sometimes deliberately by special enzymes called DNA methyltransferases and sometimes accidentally by oxidation, ionizing radiation, or the action of chemical carcinogens. DNA can also be cleaved and degraded by enzymes called nucleases (nuclease).

Three types of natural methylation have been reported in DNA. Cytosine can be modified either on the ring to form 5-methylcytosine or on the exocyclic amino group to form N⁴-methylcytosine. Adenine may be modified to form N⁶-methyladenine. N⁴-methylcytosine and N⁶-methyladenine are found only in bacteria and archaea, whereas 5-methylcytosine is widely distributed. Special enzymes called DNA methyltransferases are responsible for this methylation; they recognize specific sequences within the DNA molecule so that only a subset of the bases is modified. Other methylations of the bases or of the deoxyribose are sometimes induced by carcinogens. These usually lead to mispairing of the bases during replication and have to be removed if they are not to become mutagenic.

Natural methylation has many cellular functions. In bacteria and archaea, methylation forms an essential part of the immune system by protecting DNA molecules from fragmentation by restriction endonucleases (restriction enzyme). In some organisms, methylation helps to eliminate incorrect base sequences introduced during DNA replication. By marking the parental strand with a methyl group, a cellular mechanism known as the mismatch repair system distinguishes between the newly replicated strand where the errors occur and the correct sequence on the template strand. In higher eukaryotes, 5-methylcytosine controls many cellular phenomena by preventing DNA transcription. Methylation is also believed to signal imprinting, a process whereby some genes inherited from one parent are selectively inactivated. Correct methylation may also repress or activate key genes that control embryonic development. On the other hand, 5-methylcytosine is potentially mutagenic because thymine produced during the methylation process converts C:G pairs to T:A pairs. In mammals, methylation takes place selectively within the dinucleotide sequence CG—a rare sequence, presumably because it has been lost by mutation. In many cancers, mutations are found in key genes at CG dinucleotides.

Nucleases are enzymes that hydrolytically cleave the phosphodiester backbone of DNA. Endonucleases cleave in the middle of chains, while exonucleases operate selectively by degrading from the end of the chain. Nucleases that act on both single- and double-stranded DNA are known.

Restriction endonucleases are a special class that recognize and cleave specific sequences in DNA. Type II restriction endonucleases always cleave at or near their recognition sites. They produce small, well-defined fragments of DNA that help to characterize genes and genomes and that produce recombinant DNAs. Fragments of DNA produced by restriction endonucleases can be moved from one organism to another. In this way it has been possible to express proteins such as human insulin in bacteria.

Chemical modification of DNA can lead to mutations in the genetic material. Anions such as bisulfite can deaminate cytosine to form uracil, changing the genetic message by causing C-to-T transitions. Exposure to acid causes the loss of purine residues, though specific enzymes exist in cells to repair these lesions. Exposure to UV light can cause adjacent pyrimidines to dimerize, while oxidative damage from free radicals or strong oxidizing agents can cause a variety of lesions that are mutagenic if not repaired. Halogens such as chlorine and bromine react directly with uracil, adenine, and guanine, giving substituted bases that are often mutagenic. Similarly, nitrous acid reacts with primary amine groups—for example, converting adenosine into inosine—which then leads to changes in base pairing and mutation. Many chemical mutagens, such as chlorinated hydrocarbons and nitrites, owe their toxicity to the production of halides and nitrous acid during their metabolism in the body.

Circular DNA molecules such as those found in plasmids or bacterial chromosomes can adopt many different topologies. One is active supercoiling, which involves the cleavage of one DNA strand, its winding one or more turns around the complementary strand, and then the resealing of the molecule. Each complete rotation leads to the introduction of one supercoiled turn in the DNA, a process that can continue until the DNA is fully wound and collapses on itself in a tight ball. Reversal is also possible. Special enzymes called gyrases and topoisomerases catalyze the winding and relaxation of supercoiled DNA. In the linear chromosomes of eukaryotes, the DNA is usually tightly constrained at various points by proteins, allowing the intervening stretches to be supercoiled. This property is partially responsible for the great compaction of DNA that is necessary to fit it within the confines of the cell. The DNA in one human cell would have an extended length of between two and three metres, but it is packed very tightly so that it can fit within a human cell nucleus that is 10 micrometres in diameter.

Methods to determine the sequences of bases in DNA were pioneered in the 1970s by Frederick Sanger (Sanger, Frederick) and Walter Gilbert (Gilbert, Walter), whose efforts won them a Nobel Prize in 1980. The Gilbert-Maxam method relies on the different chemical reactivities of the bases, while the Sanger method is based on enzymatic synthesis of DNA in vitro. Both methods measure the distance from a fixed point on DNA to each occurrence of a particular base—A, C, G, or T. DNA fragments obtained from a series of reactions are separated according to length in four “lanes” by gel electrophoresis. Each lane corresponds to a unique base, and the sequence is read directly from the gel. The Sanger method has now been automated using fluorescent dyes to label the DNA, and a single machine can produce tens of thousands of DNA base sequences in a single run.

RNA is a single-stranded nucleic acid polymer of the four nucleotides A, C, G, and U joined through a backbone of alternating phosphate and ribose sugar residues. It is the first intermediate in converting the information from DNA into proteins essential for the working of a cell. Some RNAs also serve direct roles in cellular metabolism. RNA is made by copying the base sequence of a section of double-stranded DNA, called a gene, into a piece of single-stranded nucleic acid. This process, called transcription (see below RNA metabolism (nucleic acid)), is catalyzed by an enzyme called RNA polymerase.

Whereas DNA provides the genetic information for the cell and is inherently quite stable, RNA has many roles and is much more reactive chemically. RNA is sensitive to oxidizing agents such as periodate that lead to opening of the 3′-terminal ribose ring. The 2′-hydroxyl group on the ribose ring is a major cause of instability in RNA, because the presence of alkali leads to rapid cleavage of the phosphodiester bond linking ribose and phosphate groups. In general, this instability is not a significant problem for the cell, because RNA is constantly being synthesized and degraded.

Interactions between the nitrogen-containing bases differ in DNA and RNA. In DNA, which is usually double-stranded, the bases in one strand pair with complementary bases in a second DNA strand. In RNA, which is usually single-stranded, the bases pair with other bases within the same molecule, leading to complex three-dimensional structures. Occasionally, intermolecular RNA/RNA duplexes do form, but they form a right-handed A-type helix rather than the B-type DNA helix. Depending on the amount of salt present, either 11 or 12 base pairs are found in each turn of the helix. Helices between RNA and DNA molecules also form; these adopt the A-type conformation and are more stable than either RNA/RNA or DNA/DNA duplexes. Such hybrid duplexes are important species in biology, being formed when RNA polymerase transcribes DNA into mRNA for protein synthesis and when reverse transcriptase copies a viral RNA genome such as that of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

Single-stranded RNAs are flexible molecules that form a variety of structures through internal base pairing and additional non-base pair interactions. They can form hairpin loops such as those found in transfer RNA (tRNA), as well as longer-range interactions involving both the bases and the phosphate residues of two or more nucleotides. This leads to compact three-dimensional structures. Most of these structures have been inferred from biochemical data, since few crystallographic images are available for RNA molecules. In some types of RNA, a large number of bases are modified after the RNA is transcribed. More than 90 different modifications have been documented, including extensive methylations and a wide variety of substitutions around the ring. In some cases these modifications are known to affect structure and are essential for function.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) delivers the information encoded in one or more genes from the DNA to the ribosome, a specialized structure, or organelle, where that information is decoded into a protein. In prokaryotes, mRNAs contain an exact transcribed copy of the original DNA sequence with a terminal 5′-triphosphate group and a 3′-hydroxyl residue. In eukaryotes the mRNA molecules are more elaborate. The 5′-triphosphate residue is further esterified, forming a structure called a cap. At the 3′ ends, eukaryotic mRNAs typically contain long runs of adenosine residues (polyA) that are not encoded in the DNA but are added enzymatically after transcription. Eukaryotic mRNA molecules are usually composed of small segments of the original gene and are generated by a process of cleavage and rejoining from an original precursor RNA (pre-mRNA) molecule, which is an exact copy of the gene (as described in the section Splicing (nucleic acid)). In general, prokaryotic mRNAs are degraded very rapidly, whereas the cap structure and the polyA tail of eukaryotic mRNAs greatly enhance their stability.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules are the structural components of the ribosome. The rRNAs form extensive secondary structures and play an active role in recognizing conserved portions of mRNAs and tRNAs. They also assist with the catalysis of protein synthesis. In the prokaryote E. coli, seven copies of the rRNA genes synthesize about 15,000 ribosomes per cell. In eukaryotes the numbers are much larger. Anywhere from 50 to 5,000 sets of rRNA genes and as many as 10 million ribosomes may be present in a single cell. In eukaryotes these rRNA genes are looped out of the main chromosomal fibres and coalesce in the presence of proteins to form an organelle called the nucleolus. The nucleolus is where the rRNA genes are transcribed and the early assembly of ribosomes takes place.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) carries individual amino acids into the ribosome for assembly into the growing polypeptide chain. The tRNA molecules contain 70 to 80 nucleotides and fold into a characteristic cloverleaf structure. Specialized tRNAs exist for each of the 20 amino acids needed for protein synthesis, and in many cases more than one tRNA for each amino acid is present. The nucleotide sequence is converted into a protein sequence by translating each three-base sequence (called a codon (genetic code)) with a specific protein. The 61 codons used to code amino acids can be read by many fewer than 61 distinct tRNAs (as described in the section Translation (nucleic acid)). In E. coli a total of 40 different tRNAs are used to translate the 61 codons. The amino acids are loaded onto the tRNAs by specialized enzymes called aminoacyl tRNA synthetases, usually with one synthetase for each amino acid. However, in some organisms, less than the full complement of 20 synthetases are required because some amino acids, such as glutamine and asparagine, can be synthesized on their respective tRNAs. All tRNAs adopt similar structures because they all have to interact with the same sites on the ribosome.

Not all catalysis within the cell is carried out exclusively by proteins. Thomas Cech (Cech, Thomas Robert) and Sidney Altman (Altman, Sidney), jointly awarded a Nobel Prize in 1989, discovered that certain RNAs, now known as ribozymes, showed enzymatic activity. Cech showed that a noncoding sequence (intron) in the small subunit rRNA of protozoans, which had to be removed before the rRNA was functional, can excise itself from a much longer precursor RNA molecule and rejoin the two ends in an autocatalytic reaction. Altman showed that the RNA component of an RNA protein complex called ribonuclease P can cleave a precursor tRNA to generate a mature tRNA. In addition to self-splicing RNAs similar to the one discovered by Cech, artificial RNAs have been made that show a variety of catalytic reactions. It is now widely held that there was a stage during evolution when only RNA catalyzed and stored genetic information. This period, sometimes called “the RNA world,” is believed to have preceded the function of DNA as genetic material.

Most antisense RNAs are synthetically modified derivatives of RNA or DNA with potential therapeutic value. In nature, antisense RNAs contain sequences that are the complement of the normal coding sequences found in mRNAs (also called sense RNAs). Like mRNAs, antisense RNAs are single-stranded, but they cannot be translated into protein. They can inactivate their complementary mRNA by forming a double-stranded structure that blocks the translation of the base sequence. Artificially introducing antisense RNAs into cells selectively inactivates genes by interfering with normal RNA metabolism.

Many viruses use RNA for their genetic material. This is most prevalent among eukaryotic viruses, but a few prokaryotic RNA viruses are also known. Some common examples include poliovirus, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and influenza virus, all of which affect humans, and tobacco mosaic virus, which infects plants. In some viruses the entire genetic material is encoded in a single RNA molecule, while in the segmented RNA viruses several RNA molecules may be present. Many RNA viruses such as HIV use a specialized enzyme called reverse transcriptase that permits replication of the virus through a DNA intermediate. In some cases this DNA intermediate becomes integrated into the host chromosome during infection; the virus then exists in a dormant state and effectively evades the host immune system.

Many other small RNA molecules with specialized functions are present in cells. For example, small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) are involved in RNA splicing (see below), and other small RNAs that form part of the enzymes telomerase or ribonuclease P are part of ribonucleoprotein particles. The RNA component of telomerase contains a short sequence that serves as a template for the addition of small strings of oligonucleotides at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes. Other RNA molecules serve as guide RNAs for editing, or they are complementary to small sections of rRNA and either direct the positions at which methyl groups need to be added or mark U residues for conversion to the isomer pseudouridine.

Following synthesis by transcription, most RNA molecules are processed before reaching their final form. Many rRNA molecules are cleaved from much larger transcripts and may also be methylated or enzymatically modified. In addition, tRNAs are usually formed as longer precursor molecules that are cleaved by ribonuclease P to generate the mature 5′ end and often have extra residues added to their 3′ end to form the sequence CCA. The hydroxyl group on the ribose ring of the terminal A of the 3′-CCA sequence acts as the amino acid acceptor necessary for the function of RNA in protein building.

In prokaryotes the protein coding sequence occupies one continuous linear segment of DNA. However, in eukaryotic genes the coding sequences are frequently “split” in the genome—a discovery reached independently in the 1970s by Richard J. Roberts (Roberts, Richard J.) (the author of this article) and Phillip A. Sharp (Sharp, Phillip A.), whose work won them a Nobel Prize in 1993. The segments of DNA or RNA coding for protein are called exons, and the noncoding regions separating the exons are called introns. Following transcription, these coding sequences must be joined together before the mRNAs can function. The process of removal of the introns and subsequent rejoining of the exons is called RNA splicing. Each intron is removed in a separate series of reactions by a complicated piece of enzymatic machinery called a spliceosome. This machinery consists of a number of small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles (snRNPs) that contain small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs).

Some RNA molecules, particularly those in protozoan mitochondria, undergo extensive editing following their initial synthesis. During this editing process, residues are added or deleted by a posttranscriptional mechanism under the influence of guide RNAs. In some cases as much as 40 percent of the final RNA molecule may be derived by this editing process, rather than being coded directly in the genome. Some examples of editing have also been found in mRNA molecules, but these appear much more limited in scope.

Replication, repair, and recombination—the three main processes of DNA metabolism—are carried out by specialized machinery within the cell. DNA must be replicated accurately in order to ensure the integrity of the genetic code. Errors that creep in during replication or because of damage after replication must be repaired. Finally, recombination between genomes is an important mechanism to provide variation within a species and to assist the repair of damaged DNA. The details of each process have been worked out in prokaryotes, where the machinery is more streamlined, simpler, and more amenable to study. Many of the basic principles appear to be similar in eukaryotes.

DNA replication is a semiconservative process in which the two strands are separated and new complementary strands are generated independently, resulting in two exact copies of the original DNA molecule. Each copy thus contains one strand that is derived from the parent and one newly synthesized strand. Replication begins at a specific point on a chromosome called an origin, proceeds in both directions along the strand, and ends at a precise point. In the case of circular chromosomes, the end is reached automatically when the two extending chains meet, at which point specific proteins join the strands. DNA polymerases cannot initiate replication at the end of a DNA strand; they can only extend preexisting oligonucleotide fragments called primers. Therefore, in linear chromosomes, special mechanisms initiate and terminate DNA synthesis to avoid loss of information. The initiation of DNA synthesis is usually preceded by synthesis of a short RNA primer by a specialized RNA polymerase called primase. Following DNA replication, the initiating primer RNAs are degraded.

The two DNA strands are replicated in different fashions dictated by the direction of the phosphodiester bond. The leading strand is replicated continuously by adding individual nucleotides to the 3′ end of the chain. The lagging strand is synthesized in a discontinuous manner by laying down short RNA primers and then filling the gaps by DNA polymerase, such that the bases are always added in the 5′ to 3′ direction. The short RNA fragments made during the copying of the lagging strand are degraded when no longer needed. The two newly synthesized DNA segments are joined by an enzyme called DNA ligase. In this way, replication can proceed in both directions, with two leading strands and two lagging strands proceeding outward from the origin.

DNA polymerase adds single nucleotides to the 3′ end of either an RNA or a DNA molecule. In the prokaryote E. coli, there are three DNA polymerases; one is responsible for chromosome replication, and the other two are involved in the resynthesis of DNA during damage repair. DNA polymerases of eukaryotes are even more complicated. In human cells, for instance, more than five different DNA polymerases have been characterized. Separate polymerases catalyze the synthesis of the leading and lagging strands in human cells, and a separate polymerase is responsible for replication of mitochondrial DNA. The other polymerases are involved in the repair of DNA damage.

A number of other proteins are also essential for replication. Proteins called DNA helicases help to separate the two strands of DNA, and single-stranded DNA binding proteins stabilize them during opening prior to being copied. The opening of the DNA helix introduces considerable strain in the form of supercoiling, a movement that is subsequently relaxed by enzymes called topoisomerases (see above Supercoiling (nucleic acid)). A special RNA polymerase called primase synthesizes the primers needed at the origin to begin transcription, and DNA ligase seals the nicks formed between individual fragments.

The ends of linear eukaryotic chromosomes are marked by special sequences called telomeres that are synthesized by a special DNA polymerase called telomerase. This enzyme contains an RNA component that serves as a template for the exact sequence found at the ends of chromosomes. Multiple copies of a short sequence within the telomerase-associated RNA are made and added to the telomere ends. This has the effect of preventing shortening of the DNA chain that would otherwise occur during replication.

Single-stranded viral genomes, mitochondrial genomes, and some viral genomes are replicated in specialized ways. Several viruses such as adenovirus use a nucleotide covalently bound to a protein as a primer, and the protein remains covalently bound to the DNA after replication. Many single-stranded viruses use a rolling circle mechanism of replication whereby a double-stranded copy of the virus is first made. The replicating machinery then copies the nonviral strand in a continuous fashion, generating long single-stranded DNA from which full-length viral DNA strands are excised by specialized nucleases.

Recombination is the principal mechanism through which variation is introduced into populations. For example, during meiosis, the process that produces sex cells (sperm or eggs), homologous chromosomes—one derived from the mother and the equivalent from the father—become paired, and recombination, or crossing-over, takes place. The two DNA molecules are fragmented, and similar segments of the chromosome are shuffled to produce two new chromosomes, each being a mosaic of the originals. The pair separates so that each sperm or egg receives just one of the shuffled chromosomes. When sperm and egg fuse, the normal set of two copies of each chromosome is restored.

There are two forms of recombination, general and site-specific. General recombination typically involves cleavage and rejoining at identical or very similar sequences. In site-specific recombination, cleavage takes place at a specific site into which DNA is usually inserted. General recombination occurs among viruses during infection, in bacteria during conjugation, during transformation whereby DNA is directly introduced into cells, and during some types of repair processes. Site-specific recombination is frequently involved in the parasitic distribution of DNA segments throughout genomes. Many viruses, as well as special segments of DNA called transposons, rely on site-specific recombination to multiply and spread. The two processes are described in greater detail below.

General recombination, also called homologous recombination, involves two DNA molecules that have long stretches of similar base sequences. The DNA molecules are nicked to produce single strands; these subsequently invade the other duplex, where base pairing leads to a four-stranded DNA structure. The cruciform junction within this structure is called a Holliday junction, named after Robin Holliday, who proposed the original model for homologous recombination in 1964. The Holliday junction travels along the DNA duplex by “unzipping” one strand and reforming the hydrogen bonds on the second strand. Following this branch migration, the two duplexes can be nicked again, allowing them to separate. Finally, the nicks are repaired by DNA ligase. The result is two DNA duplexes in which the segment between the two nicks has been replaced. The enzymes involved in recombination have been characterized best in the prokaryote E. coli. A key enzyme is RecA, which catalyzes the strand invasion process. RecA coats single-stranded DNA and facilitates its pairing with a double-stranded DNA molecule containing the same sequence, which produces a loop structure.

Another protein, known as RecBC, is important for the recombination process. Functioning at free ends of DNA, RecBC catalyzes an unwinding-rewinding reaction as it traverses the length of the molecule. Since unwinding is faster than rewinding, a loop is produced behind the enzyme that facilitates subsequent pairing with another DNA molecule. A number of other proteins are also important for recombination, including single-stranded DNA binding proteins that stabilize single-stranded DNA, DNA polymerase to repair any gaps that might be formed, and DNA ligase to reseal the nicks after recombination is complete. The details of eukaryotic recombination are expected to parallel those found in E. coli, although the highly compact chromatin structure in eukaryotes makes the process more complicated.

It is important to note that the initial product of recombination between two regions of DNA that are similar but not identical will be a “heteroduplex”—that is, a molecule in which mismatched bases will be present at some positions in the helix. Thus, in the specialized recombination that takes place during meiosis, one round of replication is necessary before the mosaic chromosomes produced by recombination are properly matched. Enzymes are present in cells that specifically recognize and repair mismatches, so that the initial products of recombination can sometimes be repaired before they are replicated. In such cases the final products of replication will not be true reciprocal events, but rather one of the original parental molecules will appear to have been maintained to the exclusion of the other—a process called gene conversion.

Recombination also functions occasionally to repair lesions in DNA. If one chromosome of a pair becomes irreversibly damaged, the information from the other chromosome can be copied and inserted by recombination to provide a correct replacement of the damaged section. The key idea here is that sequences flanking the damage from a sister chromosome can base-pair with the corresponding sequences on the damaged chromosome, thus allowing replication to copy the correct sequence and repair the lesion.

Site-specific recombination involves very short specific sequences that are recognized by proteins. Long DNA sequences such as viral genomes, drug-resistance elements, and regulatory sequences such as the mating type locus in yeast can be inserted, removed, or inverted, having profound regulatory effects. More than any other mechanism, site-specific recombination is responsible for reshaping genomes. For example, the genomes of many higher organisms, including plants and humans, show evidence that transposable elements have been constantly inserted throughout the genome and even into one another from time to time.

One example of site-specific recombination is the integration of DNA from bacteriophage λ into the chromosome of E. coli. In this reaction, bacteriophage λ DNA, which is a linear molecule in the normal phage, first forms a circle and then is cleaved by the enzyme λ-integrase at a specific site called the phage attachment site. A similar site on the bacterial chromosome is cut by integrase to give ends with the identical extension. Because of the complementarity between these two ends, they can be rejoined so that the original circular λ chromosome is inserted into the chromosome of the E. coli bacterium. Once integrated, the phage can be held in an inactive state until signals are generated that reverse the process, allowing the phage genome to escape and resume its normal life cycle of growth and spread into other bacteria. This site-specific recombination process requires only λ-integrase and one host DNA binding protein called the integration host factor. A third protein, called excisionase, recognizes the hybrid sites formed on integration and, in conjunction with integrase, catalyzes an excision process whereby the λ chromosome is removed from the bacterial chromosome.

A similar but more widespread version of DNA integration and excision is exhibited by the transposons, the so-called jumping genes. These elements range in size from fewer than 1,000 to as many as 40,000 base pairs. Transposons are able to move from one location in a genome to another, as first discovered in corn (maize) during the 1940s and '50s by Barbara McClintock (McClintock, Barbara), whose work won her a Nobel Prize in 1983. Most, if not all, transposons encode an enzyme called transposase that acts much like λ-integrase by cleaving the ends of the transposon as well as its target site. Transposons differ from bacteriophage λ in that they do not have a separate existence outside of the chromosome but rather are always maintained in an integrated site. Two types of transposition can occur—one in which the element simply moves from one site in the chromosome to another and a second in which the transposon is replicated prior to moving. This second type of transposition leaves behind the original copy of the transposon and generates a second copy that is inserted elsewhere in the genome. Known as replicative transposition, this process is the mechanism responsible for the vast spread of transposable elements in many higher organisms.

The simplest kinds of transposons merely contain a copy of the transposase with no additional genes. They behave as parasitic elements and usually have no known associated function that is advantageous to the host. More often, transposable elements have additional genes associated with them—for example, antibiotic resistance factors. Antibiotic resistance typically occurs when an infecting bacterium acquires a plasmid that carries a gene encoding resistance to one or more antibiotics. Typically, these resistance genes are carried on transposable elements that have moved into plasmids and are easily transferred from one organism to another. Once a bacterium picks up such a gene, it enjoys a great selective advantage because it can grow in the presence of the antibiotic. Indiscriminate use of antibiotics actually promotes the buildup of these drug-resistant plasmids and strains.

It is extremely important that the integrity of DNA be maintained in order to ensure the accurate workings of a cell over its lifetime and to make certain that genetic information is accurately passed from one generation to the next. This maintenance is achieved by repair processes that constantly monitor the DNA for lesions and activate appropriate repair enzymes. As described in the section General recombination (nucleic acid), serious lesions in DNA such as pyrimidine dimers or gaps can be repaired by recombination mechanisms, but there are many other repair mechanisms.

One important mechanism is that of mismatch repair, which has been studied extensively in E. coli. The system is directed by the presence of a methyl group within the sequence GATC on the template strand. Comparable systems for mismatch repair also operate in eukaryotes, though the template strand is not marked by methyl groups. In fact, lesions within the genes for human mismatch repair systems are known to be responsible for many cancers. Loss of the mismatch repair system allows mutations to build up quickly and eventually to affect the genes that cause cells to divide. As a result, cells divide in an uncontrolled manner and become cancerous.

Once replication is complete, the most common kind of damage to nucleic acids is one in which the normal A, C, G, and T bases are changed into chemically modified bases that usually differ significantly from their natural counterparts. The only exceptions are the deamination of cytosine to uracil and the deamination of 5-methylcytosine to thymine. In these cases the product is a G:U or G:T mismatch. Specific enzymes called DNA glycosylases can recognize uracil in DNA or the thymine in a G:T mismatch and can selectively remove the base by cleaving the bond between the base and the deoxyribose sugar. Many of these enzymes are specific for the different chemically modified bases that may be present in DNA.

Another common means of repairing DNA lesions is by an excision repair pathway. Enzymes recognize damage within DNA, probably by detecting an altered conformation of DNA, and then nick the strand on either side of the lesion, allowing a small single-stranded DNA to be excised. DNA polymerase and DNA ligase then repair the single-stranded gap. In all of these systems, the presence of an abnormal base signifies which strand is to be repaired, and the complementary strand is used as the template to ensure the accuracy of repair.

RNA provides the link between the genetic information encoded in DNA and the actual workings of the cell. Some RNA molecules such as the rRNAs and the snRNAs (described in the section Types of RNA (nucleic acid)) become part of complicated ribonucleoprotein structures with specialized roles in the cell. Others such as tRNAs play key roles in protein synthesis, while mRNAs direct the synthesis of proteins by the ribosome. Three distinct phases of RNA metabolism occur. First, selected segments of the genome are copied by transcription to produce the precursor RNAs. Second, these precursors are processed to become functionally mature RNAs ready for use. When these RNAs are mRNAs, they are then used for translation. Third, after use the RNAs are degraded, and the bases are recycled. Thus, transcription is the process where a specific segment of DNA, a gene, is copied into a specific RNA that encodes a single protein or plays a structural or catalytic role. Translation is the decoding of the information within mRNA molecules that takes place on a specialized structure called a ribosome. There are important differences in both transcription and translation between prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.

Small segments of DNA are transcribed into RNA by the enzyme RNA polymerase, which achieves this copying in a strictly controlled process. The first step is to recognize a specific sequence on DNA called a promoter that signifies the start of the gene. The two strands of DNA become separated at this point, and RNA polymerase begins copying from a specific point on one strand of the DNA using a ribonucleoside 5′-triphosphate to begin the growing chain. Additional ribonucleoside triphosphates are used as the substrate, and, by cleavage of their high-energy phosphate bond, ribonucleoside monophosphates are incorporated into the growing RNA chain. Each successive ribonucleotide is directed by the complementary base pairing rules of DNA. Thus, a C in DNA directs the incorporation of a G into RNA, G is copied into C, T into A, and A into U. Synthesis continues until a termination signal is reached, at which point the RNA polymerase drops off the DNA, and the RNA molecule is released. In some cases this RNA molecule is the final mRNA. In other cases it is a pre-mRNA and requires further processing before it is ready for translation by the ribosome. Ahead of many genes in prokaryotes, there are signals called “operators” where specialized proteins called repressors bind to the DNA just upstream of the start point of transcription and prevent access to the DNA by RNA polymerase. These repressor proteins thus prevent transcription of the gene by physically blocking the action of the RNA polymerase. Typically, repressors are released from their blocking action when they receive signals from other molecules in the cell indicating that the gene needs to be expressed. Ahead of some prokaryotic genes are signals to which activator proteins bind that positively induce transcription.

Transcription in higher organisms is more complicated. First, the RNA polymerase of eukaryotes is a more complicated enzyme than the relatively simple five-subunit enzyme of prokaryotes. In addition, there are many more accessory factors that help to control the efficiency of the individual promoters. These accessory proteins are called transcription factors (transcription factor) and typically respond to signals from within the cell that indicate whether transcription is required. In many human genes, several transcription factors may be needed before transcription can proceed efficiently. A transcription factor can cause either repression or activation of gene expression in eukaryotes.

During transcription, only one strand of the DNA is usually copied. This is called the template strand, and the RNA molecules produced are single-stranded. The DNA strand that would correspond to the mRNA is called the coding or sense strand, and it is not unusual for this to change from one gene to the next. In eukaryotes the initial product of transcription is called a pre-mRNA, which is extensively spliced before the mature mRNA is produced, ready for translation by the ribosome.

The process of translation uses the information present in the nucleotide sequence of mRNA to direct the synthesis of a specific protein for use by the cell. Translation takes place on the ribosomes—complex particles in the cell that contain RNA and protein. In prokaryotes the ribosomes are loaded onto the mRNA while transcription is still ongoing. Near the 5′ end of the mRNA, a short sequence of nucleotides signals the starting point for translation. It contains a few nucleotides called a ribosome binding site, or Shine-Dalgarno sequence. In E. coli the tetranucleotide GAGG is sufficient to serve as a binding site. This typically lies five to eight bases upstream of an initiation codon. The mRNA sequence is read three bases at a time from its 5′ end toward its 3′ end, and one amino acid is added to the growing chain from its respective aminoacyl tRNA, until the complete protein chain is assembled. Translation stops when the ribosome encounters a termination codon, normally UAG, UAA, or UGA. Special release factors associate with the ribosome in response to these codons, and the newly synthesized protein, tRNAs, and mRNA all dissociate. The ribosome then becomes available to interact with another mRNA molecule.

In eukaryotes the essence of protein synthesis is the same, although the ribosomes are more complicated. As with prokaryotic initiation, the signal sequence interacts with the 3′ end of the small subunit rRNA during formation of the initiation complex.

The issue of fidelity is important during protein synthesis, but it is not as crucial as fidelity during replication. One mRNA molecule can be translated repeatedly to give many copies of the protein. When an occasional protein is mistranslated, it usually does not fold properly and is then degraded by the cellular machinery. However, proofreading mechanisms exist within the ribosome to ensure accurate pairing between the codon in the mRNA and the anticodon in the tRNA.