The country's name is derived from Rio dos Camarões (River of Prawns)—the name given to the Wouri River estuary by Portuguese explorers of the 15th and 16th centuries. Camarões was also used to designate the river's neighbouring mountains. Until the late 19th century, English usage confined the term the Cameroons to the mountains, and the estuary was called the Cameroons River or, locally, the Bay. In 1884 the Germans extended the word Kamerun to their entire protectorate, which largely corresponded to the present state.

The western region extends north and west from the Sanaga River and continues north along the Nigerian border as far as the Bénoué (Benue) River. The relief is mostly mountainous, the result of a volcanic rift that extends northward from the island of Bioko (Fernando Po). Near the coast, the active volcanic Mount Cameroon (Cameroon, Mount) rises to the highest elevation in western Africa—13,435 feet (4,095 metres).

The central region extends east from the western highlands and from the Sanaga River north to the Bénoué River. The land rises progressively to the north and includes the Adamawa (Adamaoua (Adamawa Plateau)) Plateau, with elevations between 2,450 and 4,450 feet.

North of the Bénoué River, the savanna plain declines in elevation as it approaches the Lake Chad basin. The region contains scattered inselbergs, or mounds of erosion-resistant rock rising above the plains. The Gotel Mountains of the Adamawa trend from south to north, culminating in the Mandara Mountains of the northwest.

The rivers of Cameroon form four large drainage systems. In the south, the Sanaga, Wouri, Nyong, and Ntem rivers drain into the Atlantic Ocean. The Bénoué River and its tributary, the Kébi, flow into the Niger River basin of Nigeria. The Logone and Chari rivers—which form part of the eastern border with Chad—drain into Lake Chad, whereas the Ngoko River joins the Sangha River and flows into the Congo (Zaire) River basin.

Lying wholly within the tropics, the country is hot throughout the year; mean annual temperatures range between 70° and 82° F (21° and 28° C), although they are lower in areas of high elevation.

The incidence of rainfall depends largely on the seasonal movements of two contrasting air masses: a dry continental tropical air mass, which originates over the Sahara, is associated with hot, dusty weather, whereas a warm and humid maritime tropical air mass, originating over the Atlantic, brings rain-bearing winds. Rainfall decreases from south to north. Along the coast, the rainy season lasts from April to November, and the relatively dry season lasts from December to March; a transition period from March to April is marked by violent winds. The mean annual rainfall of more than 100 inches (2,500 millimetres) occurs in about 150 days.

In the central plateau region, rainfall decreases to 60 inches. There are four seasons—a light rainy season from May to June, a short dry season from July to October, a heavy rainy season from October to November, and a long dry season from December to May. The north, however, has a dry season only from October to May and an average annual rainfall of about 30 inches. The wettest part of the country lies in the western highlands. Debundscha Point on Mount Cameroon has a mean annual rainfall of more than 400 inches—an average attained by only two other locations in the world—most of which falls from May to October.

The hot and humid south supports dense rain forests in which hardwood evergreen trees—including mahogany, ebony, obeche, dibetu, and sapelli—may grow to more than 200 feet. There are large numbers of orchids and ferns.

Mangroves grow along the coasts and the mouths of rivers. The rain forest gives way to the semi-deciduous forest of the central region, where a number of tree species shed their leaves during the dry season. North of the semi-deciduous forest, the vegetation is composed of wooded savanna with scattered trees 10 to 60 feet high. The density of trees decreases toward the Chad basin, where they are sparse and mainly of Acacia species.

Between 4,000 and 8,000 feet, the tropical rain forest differs from that of the lowlands; the trees are smaller, are of different species, and are festooned with mosses, lichens, and other epiphytes. Above the forest zone are drier woodland, tall grassland, or patches of mountain bamboo. Above about 7,800 feet in the interior and above about 10,000 feet on Mount Cameroon, short grasses predominate.

The country's dense forests are inhabited by screaming red and green monkeys, chimpanzees, and mandrills, as well as rodents, bats, and numerous birds—from tiny sunbirds to giant hawks and eagles. A few elephants survive in the forest and in the grassy woodlands, where baboons and several types of antelope are the most common animals. The Waza National Park in the north, which was originally created for the protection of giraffes and antelope, abounds in both forest and savanna animals, including monkeys, baboons, lions, leopards, and birds that range from white and gray pelicans to spotted waders.

In general there is a cultural division between the north and the south. The northern savanna plateau is inhabited by Sudanic and Arab pastoralists who migrate seasonally in search of grazing land, whereas the forested and hilly south is peopled by Bantu agriculturists in permanent villages. The north is predominantly Muslim, whereas the southern peoples adhere to animism and Christianity.

Population density is greatest in the western highlands, in the southern forest, and along parts of the coast; it is lowest in the southeast interior. Douala is the largest city and the country's main port. Yaoundé is an important transportation and communication centre. Garoua is a port on the Bénoué River. Other towns of importance include Nkongsamba, Bafoussam, Bamenda, Maroua, and Kumba. In most cases, the provincial capitals are the largest towns and have the greatest potential for expansion.

The country has been described as a “racial crossroads” because of its more than 200 different ethnic groups. There are three main linguistic groups: the Bantu-speaking (Bantu peoples) people of the south, the Sudanic-speaking people of the north, and those who speak the Semi-Bantu languages of the west.

The Bantu settled in the Cameroons from equatorial Africa. The first group that invaded the country included the Maka, Ndjem, and Duala. They were followed at the beginning of the 19th century by the Fang (Pangwe) and Beti peoples.

The Sudanic-speaking (Sudanic languages) peoples include the Sao, who live on the Adamawa Plateau; the Fulani; (Fulani) and the Kanuri. The Fulani came from the Niger basin in two waves, in the 11th and 19th centuries; they were Muslims who converted and subjugated the peoples of the Logone valley and the Kébi and Faro river valleys. The third ethnic group consists mainly of small tribes, except for the Bantu-related Bamileke, who live between the lower slopes of the Adamawa Plateau and Mount Cameroon. Other western Semi-Bantu-speaking tribes include the Tikar, who live in the Bamenda region and in the western high plateau.

The oldest inhabitants of the country are the Pygmies (Pygmy), locally known as the Baguielli and Babinga, who live in the southern forests. They have been hunters and gatherers for thousands of years and live in small hunting bands.

European missions and colonization led to the introduction of European languages. During the colonial era German was the official language; it was later replaced by English and French, which have retained their official status.

About one-quarter of the population continue to adhere to traditional religious beliefs. More than two-fifths of the population are Christian, mainly Roman Catholic. Muslims comprise one-fifth of the population.

Cameroon's population is growing at about the same high rate as sub-Saharan Africa as a whole. The birth and death rates, however, are both somewhat lower than average. Nearly half the population are below age 15, and more than two-fifths, a comparatively high proportion, live in urban areas. Life expectancy, at 51 years, has improved greatly in the late 20th century.

Until the late 20th century the economy of Cameroon was basically agricultural; it has since experienced a shift toward a mining economy.

Cameroon's main problem, in common with the other developing countries of Africa, is the acquisition of capital to finance resource development. When foreign investment capital is scarce, the country depends largely on the sale of its products on the world market. Fluctuations in world prices of raw materials such as cocoa and coffee, however, make the future unpredictable.

The government sets guidelines in its five-year plans and attracts private capital for the development of certain sectors of the economy. The first two plans (1961–65 and 1966–71) concentrated on expansion of educational facilities, diversification of farm production, and selective industrialization and on rural development and the introduction of rural cooperatives, respectively. Subsequent plans have extended these, relying on increasingly greater proportions of private investment.

Foreign indebtedness rose along with development spending, though the government was successful in keeping its debt service within reasonable levels. In the late 1980s, however, budget deficits compelled Cameroon to resort to external borrowing and to accept the intervention of the International Monetary Fund's structural readjustment programs.

There are four different company tax systems, which offer various benefits to developing industries. Most tax revenues are obtained from petroleum royalties, corporation profit levies, property taxes, and import and export duties.

Worker-employer relations have been peaceful since 1960, which may, in part, result from government appointment of top union officials and the illegality of strikes. Employers' associations include Chambers of Commerce in Douala and Yaoundé and associations for those engaged in industry and the import-export trade. The two main trade unions are the National Union of Private Journalists and the Organization des Syndicats des Travailleurs Cameroonais, both based in Yaoundé.

The growth of the petroleum industry since 1980 has resulted in a gradual decline in the importance of agriculture, forestry, and fishing to the gross domestic product. About three-fourths of the working population are engaged in this sector, compared with 90 percent in the 1970s. Primary agricultural and forest products provide about one-third of total export earnings, with cocoa and coffee the leading agricultural exports. Small family holdings are responsible for about 80 percent of the agricultural exports, with less than 10 percent coming from commercial plantations. The main subsistence crops include plantain, beans, potatoes, yams, cassava, corn (maize), and oil palm in the south and peanuts (groundnuts), millet, and cassava in the north.

Cocoa is grown mainly in the south. The country ranks as the world's fifth largest producer. Robusta coffee, which accounts for about 85 percent of the coffee crop, is grown both in the southern warm and humid parts of the country and in the western high plateau, where arabica coffee is also grown. Yields have been adversely affected by the increasing age of the plantations and delay in modernizing.

Cotton was introduced in 1952; it is grown largely in the grasslands by private farmers. Systematic diversification of agricultural production into such crops as palm oil, rubber, and sugar has taken place.

Food production has kept pace with population growth, and the country is generally self-sufficient. Domestic consumption of meat is reasonably high. Livestock is exported to Nigeria, Equatorial Guinea, and Congo (Brazzaville), and hides and skins to Nigeria and Equatorial Guinea. Commercial fishing constitutes about one-third of the total marine catch, while traditional coastal fishing makes up the remainder. The freshwater catch is about one-third the size of the marine catch.

About one-half of the country is forested, but only about one-third of the available hardwood forest resources are exploited. Forestry is limited to the most accessible areas along the Douala–Yaoundé railway and the main roads.

Cameroon is endowed with abundant mineral wealth, but until recently there was no indication of any meaningful exploitation. Large amounts of kyanite (an aluminum silicate) and bauxite are deposited at Minim-Martap and Ngaoundéré on the Adamawa Plateau. Bauxite deposits at Minim-Martap remain unexploited because of weak world demand and the heavy investment involved in both mining and building the necessary transportation infrastructure. Limestone deposited near Garoua is quarried for use in cement plants. There is some gold in East Cameroon, and cassiterite occurs in the Darlé River valley in the northeast. Unexploited resources include iron ore (found at Kribi) and uranium.

In 1976 oil was found offshore at Rio-del-Ray. Production began in 1977, and since 1980 oil has been the country's most important export. Despite the fall in world oil prices, petroleum remains attractive as the main source of income. Natural gas deposits also have been located but remain unexploited because of the high investment costs.

The contribution of manufacturing to the economy has grown strongly in the late 20th century. Production is centred on import substitution (e.g., soap, tires, and footwear) and the processing of agricultural commodities (sugar refining, cotton spinning, tobacco and wood-pulp production). The industrial sector consists of one major heavy industrial complex, the Edéa aluminum smelter, which smelts imported bauxite.

The government is the major participant in the industrial sector, mainly through the Société National d'Investissement, which emphasizes reducing dependence on imported materials and establishing small and medium-sized enterprises. Plants have been set up to produce tires, cement, and fertilizer, to refine petroleum, and to tan hides from locally produced livestock.

The main source of hydroelectric power is the Sanaga River; the chief installations are at Edéa, on the Sanaga Falls, and at Song-Loulou. The station at Lagdo on the Bénoué River was financed and built with aid from China.

Cameroon is linked together with several other countries in western Africa in a monetary union with a common currency, the CFA (Communauté Financière Africaine, or African Financial Community) franc. The CFA franc is convertible into any currency, but France must approve direct investment by citizens within the franc zone in countries outside of it, the issue and sale of foreign stocks and shares in the area, and borrowings from outside the area. France is represented on the board of directors of the Central Bank in Yaoundé; its notes and coins also are legal tender. Cameroon has its own monetary committee, on which France is represented, and a National Credit Council.

There are a number of foreign commercial banks operated by Cameroonian, French, British, and American interests. In addition to these, there are several development banks. Most insurance companies are French-owned.

Most trade is carried out with the EEC countries. France is the largest individual trading partner; it supplies more than one-third of Cameroon's imports and takes almost one-fourth of its exports. Trade outside the Common Market is primarily with the United States and Japan. Trade with other African and Arab countries has increased considerably.

Major exports include crude oil, cocoa, coffee, cotton, and timber. Others include oil-palm products, tea, rubber, peanuts, bananas, and fresh vegetables, as well as factory products such as aluminum, textiles, plastics, beverages, and confectionery. Major imports are machinery and transportation equipment and spare parts, fertilizers, pesticides, electronics, clothing, and textiles.

The difficult terrain and heavy rainfall in the south have been contributory factors to the absence of an adequate transportation network. The north has traditionally been isolated from the south. Transportation is more developed in some regions than in others; the best roads are in the coastal region, whereas the roads in eastern Cameroon and on the western high plateau are few and are often in bad condition.

A major project was the completion of the first all-weather highway from Yaoundé to the commercial centre at Douala and between Yaoundé and the western high plateau. Another road-building program was completed in the Bertoua region in the southeast in 1986. The World Bank has provided financial support for programs of road maintenance.

The rail system nearly doubled in track length between 1965 and 1985, with the extension of the main line from Yaoundé to Ngaoundéré in the first and second phases of the Trans-Cameroon Railway and the extension of the short branch of the western line to Kumba. The rail line from Douala to Yaoundé was shortened and realigned in a modernization program.

The main port is Douala, on the estuary of the Wouri River, which accounts for 95 percent of Cameroonian port traffic. One of the best-equipped ports in western Africa, it has docks for cargo ships, including a wood-loading dock and a tanker dock with adjacent facilities for the unloading and storage of minerals. The first phase of a major port extension scheme (to increase annual capacity to seven million tons) was completed in 1980, and work began in 1983 on a rehabilitation scheme that included construction of container facilities.

Douala handles most of the goods that are traded by Chad and the Central African Republic; the river networks leading to it serve as the main arteries of transit to these countries. The minor ports include Kribi at the mouth of the Kienké River, which is used primarily for the shipment of logs and cocoa from the interior; the ocean port of Limbe in western Cameroon, which handles only a modest amount of traffic; and Tiko, on a creek leading to the Wouri estuary, which handles bananas, wood, and rubber. In the north, the river port of Garoua, on the banks of the Bénoué, transports goods to Nigeria; the upper Bénoué, however, is navigable only from 7 to 10 weeks each year.

Douala is the main international airport, and Yaoundé and Garoua also handle international flights. There are domestic airports at Tiko, Ngaoundéré, Bafoussam, Bamenda, Maroua, Ebolowa, Bertona, and Batouri, as well as numerous airfields. Cameroon Airlines, which is jointly owned by the government and by Air France, provides domestic service and routes to European and African cities.

By the constitution of 1961, the states of West Cameroon and East Cameroon were linked together into a federation. The constitution of 1972, subsequently revised, replaced the federation with a centralized government, the United Republic of Cameroon; in 1984 the name of the country was changed to the Republic of Cameroon.

Executive powers are conferred on the president. He serves as the chief of state, appoints a cabinet and a prime minister, and is elected for a period of seven years by direct and universal suffrage. Legislative power is held by a unicameral National Assembly, which has 180 members who are directly elected for five-year terms. Although 1996 constitutional revisions provided for a bicameral legislature with the addition of an upper legislative assembly, these revisions have not been implemented.

The republic is divided into 10 provinces, each administered by a governor. Each province is further divided into départements, arrondissements, and districts.

According to the constitution, the president is responsible for guaranteeing the independence of the judiciary. The Supreme Council of the Magistrature advises the president on the nomination of magistrates and judges and acts as a disciplinary body. The court system is subordinate to the Ministry of Justice and includes the Supreme Court, courts of appeal in each province, and courts of first instance. There is also a High Court of Justice, which passes judgment on the president in the case of high treason and on other government ministers in the event of a plot against the government.

Cameroon was a de facto one-party state from 1966 and was dominated by the Cameroon National Union, a merger of six political parties; it was renamed the Cameroon People's Democratic Movement in 1985. After much political unrest and many violent clashes, a constitutional amendment in 1990 established a multiparty system; main opposition groups included the Social Democratic Front, the National Union for Democracy and Progress, and the Cameroon Democratic Union.

Educational services have expanded. About three-fourths of all children of primary-school age are enrolled either in government or in Christian mission schools. This attendance rate is not constant throughout the country, however, because the availability of school facilities varies regionally; virtually all children in the south may attend school, but adequate facilities exist for only about two-fifths of the children in the north.

There are general-education secondary schools, vocational schools, and teacher-training schools. Manual labour is compulsory in secondary and technical schools as a means of encouraging graduates to take up farming instead of seeking white-collar jobs in the cities. The University of Yaoundé was established in 1962 and in the early 1980s added four regional campuses.

Malaria is prevalent everywhere except in the mountainous regions, where respiratory and pulmonary diseases and dysentery are common. There are incidences of leprosy and schistosomiasis, as well as syphilis, sleeping sickness, and rheumatism. The infant mortality rate, at about 100 per 1,000 live births, remains high by world standards but is nonetheless comparatively low for western Africa.

The government emphasized the improvement of the nation's health facilities in the first and second five-year development plans and increased the number of hospitals, dispensaries, and elementary health centres about sevenfold. Hospitals in major cities were modernized, and in the late 1980s the country had one of the lowest population to hospital bed ratios in western Africa. A Health Sciences University Centre was established at the university in 1969 to train physicians and other medical personnel.

There is no government system of social security covering the whole population. Most assistance is obtained through the traditional kinship system. The National Social Insurance Fund, financed by employee and employer contributions, provides limited pension benefits for wage employees. There are, however, indemnities for occupational diseases or accidents, and the Public Health Service provides free services to the poor.

Each major ethnic group of the country has developed its own culture. The vigorous rhythms played on the drums by the people of the southern forest region contrast with the flute music of northern Cameroonians. In the Adamawa area, the Muslim Fulani produce elaborately worked leather goods and ornate calabashes (gourds used as containers), and the Kirdi and the Matakam of the western mountains produce distinctive types of pottery. The powerful masks of the Bali, which represent elephants' heads, are used in ceremonies for the dead, and the statuettes of the Bamileke are carved in human and animal figures. The Tikar people are famous for beautifully decorated brass pipes, the Ngoutou people for two-faced masks, and the Bamum for smiling masks.

L'Institut Français d'Afrique Noire (French Institute of Black Africa) maintains a library in Douala that specializes in the sociology, ethnology, and history of Africa. Of the several museums, the Diamare and Maroua Museum has anthropological collections relating to the Sudanese peoples, and the Cameroon Museum of Douala exhibits objects of prehistory and natural history.

Cultural organizations include the Cameroun Cultural Association, the Cameroun Cultural Society, and the Federal Linguistic and Cultural Centre. There are also numerous women's associations, youth organizations, and sporting associations.