an entertainment or spectacle usually consisting of trained animal acts and exhibitions of human skill and daring. The word has the same root as circle and circumference, recalling the distinctive environment in which such entertainment is presented—the ring, a circular performance area usually bounded by a short fence (or “curb”). The ring may be enclosed in an arena, in a building designed for circus performances, or in a tent, and it is generally surrounded by tiers of seats for spectators.

Variations to this definition exist, however, and any attempt at a strict, all-inclusive definition reduces the term's application to a particular nationality, generation, or proprietorship. Some circuses do not use trained animals, for example, such as the circuses of China and Africa, which feature acrobatic acts similar to those elsewhere, albeit with traditions rooted in religion and folklore. At various times circuses have offered supplementary attractions such as street parades, menageries, sideshows, pantomimes, and theatrical presentations. A number of circuses, especially in Europe, have been stationary, occupying permanent, often elegant buildings in larger cities. Others have traveled extensively—originally by horse and wagon and then by railroad, boat, motor vehicle, or even airplane—and exhibited in tents, theatres, and, beginning in the 1960s, huge enclosed sports arenas. Many circus companies, particularly in the United States, exhibit simultaneously in three or more rings, with the building or tent taking on a rectangular or elliptical shape; others retain the one-ring format. Some organizations, such as the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus, can point to a history extending back a century or more; other circuses, such as those sponsored by fraternal organizations (e.g., the Shriners), may exist for less than a single season or for only one engagement. Through all the above, however, there runs a common thread: the ring, by which spectators readily recognize the entertainment known as “circus.”

The circus is of comparatively recent origin, yet certain elements can be traced back to ancient Rome. The great Roman amphitheatres (amphitheatre)—called circuses after the Latin word for “circle”—were most often devoted to gladiatorial combats, chariot races, the slaughter of animals, mock battles, and other blood sports. The most spectacular of these arenas, the Circus Maximus, was in operation for more than 1,000 years. It would seem on the surface that these exhibitions of carnage had little in common with modern circuses, yet it is from the early Roman circuses that traditions such as trained animals and the preshow parade derive.

Elsewhere, ancient peoples performed other acts associated with the modern circus. Acrobatics, balancing acts, and juggling are probably as old as humankind itself, with records of such acts being performed in Egypt as early as 2500 BC. The Greeks practiced ropedancing; early African civilizations engaged in siricasi (a combination of folkloric dances and acrobatics); and the ancient Chinese juggled and performed acrobatic acts for members of the imperial court. Clowns have existed in nearly every period and civilization, both as characters in farces and as individual performers.

For centuries, however, there were no attempts to organize such acts into a distinct entertainment; rather, individuals and small troupes of performers with specialized talents wandered through Europe, Africa, and Asia. Such roving entertainers appeared wherever groups of people gathered: in nobles' halls, at community celebrations, and at marketplaces. In the 9th century King Alfred the Great (Alfred) of England was said to have been entertained by a wild beast show, and in the 11th century William the Conqueror (William I) brought performing troupes of ropedancers, tumblers, and contortionists to England from France.

Fairs (fair) played an important role in developing trade throughout Europe from the 7th century until the late medieval period, at which point more-regular channels of marketing were standardized. Fairs then became a place less for trading than for entertainment, providing a showcase for acrobatics, feats of skill, trained animals, and other elements later associated with the circus. By the late 18th century, however, they were regarded as unsavory affairs, as they had become gathering places for pickpockets, thieves, and vagrants.

Astley discovered that similar developments were occurring in France when he traveled to that country in 1772 to present his “daring feats of horsemanship” before King Louis XV (Louis XV) at Fontainebleau. Ten years later Astley returned to Paris and opened an amphitheatre (one of 19 permanent circuses he built during his lifetime) at Rue de Faubourg du Temple, near the Boulevard du Crime, where the Place de la Republique stands today. He left Paris in 1793, following the outbreak of the French Revolution, whereupon his Parisian circus was taken over by the Italian Antonio Franconi (Franconi, Antonio), a member of a noble Venetian family who had been forced into exile after a fatal duel. Franconi became first a showman and later a trick rider, but it was as a director that he excelled. His sons, Laurent and Henri, together with their wives and children, continued in his footsteps, and the Franconi family is generally credited with the founding of the French circus. They are also credited with having standardized the diameter of the ring at 13 metres (approximately 42 feet). In 1802, with the arrival of Napoleon and his empire, Astley resumed control of his Paris circus. The Franconis moved to Rue du Mont-Thabor, where they built another circus.

Concurrent with these developments, a rival horseman and former Astley employee named Charles Hughes traveled to Russia in 1773 to perform for Catherine the Great (Catherine II) in the royal palace of St. Petersburg. He took with him a small company of trick riders and taught horsemanship at the court. Hughes is therefore sometimes credited with having introduced the circus to Russia, but his exhibitions encompassed only trick riding. (The first Russian circus to incorporate a full complement of acts was that of the Frenchman Jacques Tourniaire, a first-rate equestrian who built a short-lived circus in St. Petersburg.) Hughes went on to introduce the term circus in 1782, when he opened what he called the Royal Circus a few hundred yards south of Astley's amphitheatre.

From the time of its origin in England, the circus was often presented in a theatre setting, mostly in permanent or semipermanent buildings of flimsy construction. The greatest hazard to these theatres was fire, from which Astley suffered particularly: his amphitheatre burned down three times in the first 62 years of its history. At Astley's, the Royal Circus, and elsewhere, a proscenium arch and large scenic stage were set behind a ring, creating a sense of theatre. Within these settings riders on horseback acted out pantomimed stories based on famous battles and sieges. As advertised in an old Astley handbill, such acts sought to demonstrate the battle techniques of “a general engagement, sword in hand, with the different postures of offence, for the safety of man and horse.” In France this genre of horseback entertainment was eventually exiled to traditional theatres.

By the late 18th century the circus had spread throughout Europe and had gained a fragile foothold in the United States. In 1793 John Bill Ricketts, a Scottish rider and former student of Hughes, presented exhibitions in Philadelphia and New York City consisting of trick riding, rope walkers, tumblers, pantomimes, and a clown. Because Ricketts was the first in the United States to offer such variety for an evening's entertainment, he is credited with the country's introduction to the circus. The main feature of his show was his own equestrian act, in which he leaped from his galloping horse over a ribbon suspended 12 feet (3.7 metres) in the air and then landed back in the saddle. Animals would not become commonplace in American circuses for several years, but Ricketts's steed, Cornplanter, is regarded as the first star animal performer in the United States. Within a few years Ricketts would hire John Durang, who is believed to have been the first American-born circus clown.

Despite the variety of acts presented by Ricketts and other early entrepreneurs, the main attraction of the circus was always the riding act. Such acts often required a “ringmaster” to keep the horses running properly as the rider performed tricks. In time the role of the ringmaster expanded into that of an emcee (and an occasional foil for clowns); today's ringmasters still wear traditional riding garb.

In the tradition of Astley's and other European circuses, Ricketts's productions featured a pantomime—or, as it came to be known, the “spectacular,” or “spec” in circus jargon. As in Astley's circus, Ricketts's specs sometimes dramatized famous battles, but they also evolved to re-create historical incidents, ancient myths, and Bible stories. Sometimes they consisted of a grand pageant in which the entire circus company, dressed in glittering costumes, paraded through the arena (the form in which the spec has endured into modern times).

Unfortunately, Ricketts's endeavour, like Astley's before him, fell victim to fire, the most notorious enemy of circuses. Shortly after losing his New York circus to fire, Ricketts returned to Philadelphia, where in 1799 yet another of his circuses burned to the ground. After a few unsuccessful attempts at rebuilding his career, the discouraged and near-bankrupt Ricketts set sail for England, hoping to reestablish himself in that country. The ship on which he sailed, however, perished at sea on an unknown date in 1800, claiming the lives of all aboard.

After Ricketts's death the popularity of the circus waned in the United States, although certain troupes had sporadic success during the early 19th century. The European circus of Pepin and Breschard, for instance, was well received at the turn of the century. It was also about this time that the popularity of exotic animals was noted by exhibitors, with the arrival of the first elephant on the North American continent in 1796. The animal, owned at first by Captain Jacob Crowninshield (and recorded in history only as “Crowninshield's elephant”), became the first elephant to be exhibited with a circus when it joined the Cayetano, Codet, Menial & Redon Circus of New York in 1812.

The second elephant on American shores, Old Bet, was even more popular and is credited with having established the circus tradition of the animal menagerie. Old Bet was owned by Hackaliah Bailey of Somers, New York. Between 1809 and 1816 Bailey toured with the elephant, walking with the animal from town to town under the cover of night in order to prevent anyone from having a free look at the beast. Old Bet's popularity inspired Bailey's farmer-neighbours to set out with menageries of their own. In a very short time there were noteworthy traveling collections of wild animals, such as the Zoological Institute of the June brothers. June, Titus & Angevine and Van Amburgh's Menagerie also set up permanent establishments in the larger cities. Similar exhibitions developed in England (United Kingdom), which led to such famous traveling menageries as Bostock & Wombwell's. Some menageries were as large as full traveling zoos, although most of them could be contained within two or three wagons.

Other important innovations during this time included the introduction of the circus tent, or “big top,” which was first used about 1825 on the itinerating show of the American J. Purdy Brown. His reasons for exhibiting shows under canvas tents (which were at first very small, housing one ring and a few hundred seats) are unknown, but it was an innovation that became a standard component of circuses for more than a century and a half. It allowed Brown to become the first operator to travel widely with his circus, which he did throughout Virginia in 1826 and along the banks of the Mississippi River in 1828. His show featured minstrel (minstrel show) numbers as well as acts common to other circuses of the time. It would eventually offer an animal menagerie, the first (in 1832) to be incorporated into a circus setting.

The American circus lost its most important promoter when Brown died suddenly following a performance in 1834. It would be nearly four decades before entrepreneurs as influential as Ricketts or Brown would reemerge and expand the circus to newfound heights of popularity. Until that time, circuses maintained a fair level of success with traveling shows such as the Mount Pitt Circus, as well as those featuring the animal tamer Isaac Van Amburgh and the famous American clown Dan Rice (Rice, Dan).

The United States gradually became the world leader in circus innovations, however, eclipsing European circuses in terms of scale and extravagance by adding rings to the performance space and exhibiting shows under larger and larger tents, or “tops.” The American circus truly came to the forefront of international developments through the efforts of Phineas T. Barnum (Barnum, P.T.), who was already a household name by the time he promoted his first circus at age 61. Barnum began his career as a showman (and charlatan) in 1834 by promoting Joice Heth, an African American woman in her 80s, as the 161-year-old former nurse to George Washington (Washington, George). His next major enterprise was the acquisition of New York's American Museum, which he turned into a showcase for the sensational and the bizarre. More than 82 million visitors—including such notables as Henry James (James, Henry), Charles Dickens (Dickens, Charles), and the prince of Wales—visited the museum to examine its human and animal curiosities, some genuine (such as Chang and Eng, the “original” Siamese twins), some bogus (such as the “Feejee Mermaid,” a creature fabricated by attaching the body of a fish to the head of a monkey). Barnum closed the museum in 1868 after losing it twice to fire and then spent a few years promoting individual attractions (such as Swedish singer Jenny Lind (Lind, Jenny)) before becoming partners with W.C. Coup (Coup, W C) in 1871. With Coup, Barnum produced a spectacular circus in Brooklyn, New York, that was billed as the “Greatest Show on Earth.” It offered several attractions borrowed from Barnum's museum, from which evolved the sideshow, a feature unique to American circuses.

Before 1872 most itinerating circuses moved from town to town by horse and wagon, a form of transport that necessarily limited their size and the distances they could cover in a given season. In the spring of that year, Barnum and his partners loaded their show onto 65 railroad cars and thereby gave birth to the age of the giant railroad circuses. Circuses could then move greater distances and perform in towns that had the space and the population to support the large shows. Barnum's own “Greatest Show on Earth” eventually traveled on three separate trains, going distances of 100 miles (160 km) or more in a single night. Later in the century, Coup would introduce the end loading of circus trains, in which the gaps between flatcars were bridged by iron plates and each wagon, fully loaded, was pushed down the plates of the train to its assigned place. American circuses thus became models of logistic efficiency, their methods leading to the creation of the modern system of rail-truck freight handling.

Barnum & Bailey's main competitors during the late 19th century were the Ringling Brothers, who established their first circus in 1884. During this period and into the early 20th century, the Ringlings expanded their organization by acquiring several smaller circuses.

Continental European and British circuses generally retained the one-ring format in the mid- to late 19th century; their programs were often of the highest calibre, and their tents may have seated as many as 5,000 spectators. In order to maintain the one-ring design while expanding the area beneath the tent, the European tent was designed with the four centre poles forming a square instead of a single-file line as with American big tops. European circuses were also often performed in permanent buildings—at the Circus Schumann in Copenhagen, for example, and at the venerable Cirque d'Hiver in Paris, which dates from 1852. In Russia and certain other areas of the former Soviet Union (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics), the circus was regarded as an art form and received lavish state support and beautiful permanent spaces. To this day nearly every city of any size in the former Soviet states boasts a permanent circus building. Throughout Europe rail transport for circuses was never very popular, and, although a few attempts at traveling by rail were made, it was not until the second quarter of the 20th century that rail travel came into regular use by any European show. In Latin America and East Asia it was used, when available, after 1900.

In the United States and to some extent in Europe, circuses annually retired to winter quarters to rest and refurbish for another season. Among the cities that became identified as winter-quarters towns were Peru, Indiana, which sheltered Hagenbeck-Wallace and other shows; Baraboo, Wisconsin, the winter home for the Ringling Bros. Circus and the Ringlings' cousins the Gollmar Brothers; Delavan, Wisconsin, home to more than a dozen circuses; and Bridgeport, Connecticut, which for nearly 50 years served as headquarters for Barnum's “Greatest Show on Earth,” until the Ringlings moved the operations of the combined show to Sarasota, Florida, in 1927.

Many characteristics of the modern circus—such as parades, acts of skill, animals, and clowns—had become mainstays of many circuses by the mid-19th century.

In England, Shakespeare's Richard III and Macbeth and even Richard Verdi's opera Il trovatore were performed on horseback at Astley's during the 19th century. Astley's never became as fashionable as several circuses based in permanent buildings on the Continent, however. The most exclusive clubs in Paris kept their own private boxes at the Cirque d'Été; and in Paris, St. Petersburg, and Berlin the stables were regularly scented for the benefit of aristocratic visitors.

The 19th century saw other great riders who were champions of bareback riding—the art of performing acrobatic and gymnastic feats on the bare backs of loping horses. James Robinson, a mid-19th-century American, was one such rider. He was billed as “the One Great and Only Hero and Bareback Horseman and Gold Champion-Belted Emperor of All Equestrians.”

A variety of other equestrian tricks gained popularity in the 19th century. A traditional finale of the larger tent shows, known as the Great Roman Hippodrome Races, was a spectacle composed of novelty races, steeplechases, and the ancient arts of chariot racing and Roman post (standing) riding. Also popular were “horses at liberty,” horses that performed free of rider, reins, or harness, directed solely by visual or oral command. In 1897 the Barnum & Bailey Circus presented the largest troupe of these horses, with 70 performing simultaneously in one ring.

Acts of human skill experienced a resurgence in the 19th century as a part of the circus. The flying trapeze was invented by the French acrobat Jules Léotard in 1859. That same year another Frenchman, Jean-François Gravelet (stage name “ Blondin”), crossed Niagara Falls on a tightrope. These events excited public interest in the work of the aerial gymnast and acrobat. By the turn of the 20th century, acrobatic acts had grown in popularity, although they never usurped the supreme position of the horse in the circus.

Notable circus families became prominent during the 19th century. From one generation to another, members of a family would be trained from earliest childhood in the skills and discipline necessary to achieve perfection either in one specialty or in a group of related specialties. For example, the Cristiani family of Italy—known as the “Royal Family of the Circus,” with a history dating back to the mid-19th century—were perhaps the most famous equestrians in circus history, but some members excelled in the common circus skills of tumbling, ballet, and acrobatics. Circus families often intermarried. The Cooke family, which traveled from Scotland to New York City in the early 1800s, was an equestrian group that intermarried with the Coles and the Ortons, both well-known American circus families. As a family expanded, branches were established in numerous areas, and members often went from one branch to another. The Cristianis, for instance, established branches throughout Europe and in the United States; they, like many other circus families, gained their largest measure of fame outside their native country. Another example of this is the Cinisellis, an Italian family that dominated the Russian circus during the late 19th century.

As the circus developed in the 19th century, the clown came to play a definite role in it. In 19th-century one-ring circuses, clowns often entertained audiences with songs and long monologues, in which they sometimes offered words of wisdom on politics and current events or quoted Shakespeare; one such clown was the popular American Dan Rice (Rice, Dan), who was known for an act that incorporated singing, dancing, jokes, and trick riding. Several other varieties of clowns were popular in the 19th century, particularly the elegantly costumed whiteface clown, favoured in many European circuses, who appears rather severe and domineering, and the happy-go-lucky Auguste (German: “foolish”) clown, conceived by the American Tom Belling in the late 19th century, whose makeup, costume, and behaviour are exaggerated and grotesque.

The introduction of wild animals to the circus dates from about 1831, when the French trainer Henri Martin, performing in Germany, presumably entered a cage with a tiger. He was soon followed by the American trainer Isaac A. Van Amburgh, reputedly the first man to stick his head into a lion's mouth, who in 1838 took his act to England and so fascinated the young Queen Victoria that she commissioned the artist Sir Edwin Landseer to paint a portrait of the brawny American with his “big cats.” In addition to exhibiting at circuses, both Martin and Van Amburgh frequently trod the boards of regular theatres, where they and their animals were featured in melodramas with such titles as Hyder Ali (also known as The Lions of Mysore) and The Brute Tamer of Pompeii. Other dramas performed in theatres and circuses about this time featured elephants, bears, monkeys, and horses in starring roles.

In the United States, elephants have long been considered by many to be the very hallmark of the circus. As Barnum once said, “Elephants and clowns are pegs on which to hang a circus.” Beginning with the single specimens exhibited at Astley's in the early 19th century, the number of performing elephants, especially in American three-ring circuses, would run as high as 40 or more by the turn of the 20th century.

By the time American circuses achieved their massive character in the 1870s, the menagerie was a major feature, and it remained so through the 1940s. Circus menageries in the United States were exhibited in separate tents, and audiences passed through them before going into the main performance in the “big top.” The beautifully carved wagons that held the animals lined the perimeter of the tent or were clustered in the centre of the tent. The elephants formed a line around one end of the tent, followed by other uncaged animals such as camels, llamas, bison, and zebras. Many of the larger circuses had extensive collections that included exotic animals such as rhinoceroses and giraffes, in their own portable corrals. (A number of European organizations, such as the Knie, Krone, and Orfei circuses, would still maintain animal menageries of this kind at the turn of the 21st century.)

Sideshows became a part of the circus in the United States in the late 19th century, although they did not gain much popularity elsewhere. Barnum (Barnum, P.T.) was perhaps the major influence in sideshow development, having demonstrated their popularity as an attraction at his American Museum. Typically, these shows included human “abnormalities,” such as “fat ladies,” giants and dwarfs, “armless wonders,” and “four-legged girls”; illusions and magicians; automatons and curious inventions; and various works of art, among them Hiram Powers (Powers, Hiram)'s titillating nude statue The Greek Slave (c. 1847). Housed in its own tent, the sideshow typically was fronted by giant banners or panels illustrating the marvels inside. A unique and vital element of the sideshow was the “talker,” who lured customers by “ballyhooing” the sights to be found inside. Talkers—often associated with the phrase “Step right up!”—were called “grinders” or “spielers.” As the 20th century progressed, attitudes changed toward the political correctness of such exhibitions and this caused the decline of the sideshow.

In 1907, following the death of Bailey, Barnum's final partner, the Ringling brothers bought Barnum & Bailey Circus and continued to run it as a separate show. In 1919 they finally combined it with their own circus to form the concern that still flourished at the turn of the 21st century as the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus. In 1929 John Ringling, the remaining brother, bought the American Circus Corporation of Peru, Indiana, a syndicate comprising five of the largest circuses in the United States. With this purchase Ringling owned almost all the major American circuses, thus ensuring his supremacy in the field. Such attempts at monopolies were never the case in Europe, however, where most circuses stayed in the hands of circus families that tended to split up rather than combine them; as a result, more than one circus often bore the name Pinder, Fossett, Ginnett, or Sanger.

The period between the world wars was marked by economic depression and political turmoil throughout the world, which caused several circuses to struggle for their existence. In addition, foreign travel for European circuses was inhibited by passport formalities, customs duties, quarantine restrictions, and currency regulations. For large companies with much equipment, the difficulties were particularly acute, as in the case of one German circus, the Sarrasani, which toured South America in 1923 and 1934 in order to evade inflation and political persecution at home. The circus in Britain also declined during the 1920s, although the circuses produced by Bertram Mills (Mills, Bertram), a wealthy undertaker who had invented the glass hearse, were a spectacular exception to the rule. Mills first introduced international circus stars to the British public at Kensington's Olympia in London in 1920, and he continued to produce highly successful shows at that venue for 17 years.

Meanwhile, in the United States the era of train travel and the grand horse-drawn circus parade was slowly fading. The gradual demise of both institutions was precipitated by the truck show, or motorized circus, which began with the short-lived Great United States Motorized Circus in 1919. During the 1920s motor transport also proved successful for such companies as the Downie Bros. Circus and the Seils-Sterling Circus. At first there was a tendency within the profession to belittle the truck shows, but most accepted the economic necessity of such transportation by the 1930s. In that decade several outstanding shows moved by truck, including the Wild West show of Mix, which traveled coast to coast. The last horse-drawn circus parade was that of the Cole Bros. Circus in 1939, and only the Ringling Brothers organization continued to travel by train at midcentury.

During the 1930s and '40s the Ringling empire experienced great financial difficulties. Many circus performers lost their jobs during the Great Depression of the 1930s, which prompted the federal government to organize the Works Progress Administration Circus—the only example of a state-run circus ever seen in the United States. As the circus was slowly returning to solvency, a disastrous fire in 1944 destroyed the Ringling big top during a performance in Hartford, Connecticut. The fire, which took 168 lives and left hundreds of other spectators burned and injured, added to the woes of American circus proprietors. The courts subsequently decided that the only way for the circus to repay its losses and settle its lawsuits was to remain open, and this became the first instance of a Chapter Eleven bankruptcy in the United States.

By the 1950s, faced with stiff competition from motion pictures and especially television, circuses in the United States were generally declining. In 1956 John Ringling North, cousin of the original Ringling brothers, cited economic and labour problems in announcing that the “Greatest Show on Earth” would abandon its big top and in the future perform only in permanent exhibition halls and sports arenas. Indeed, economic necessity forced American circuses to model themselves after their European counterparts, in that the tented circus eventually gave way to shows performed in huge indoor arenas. For many this announcement signaled the imminent demise of the circus. A year later, however, promoter Irvin Feld (whose family would purchase the Ringling organization in 1967) organized the first large-arena tour for the circus. Its success ensured the future of American circuses for decades to come.

In the late 20th century artists and circus companies from East Asian countries and the former Soviet republics rose to prominence. Among the distinguishing characteristics of their acts were the originality of the apparatus, costumes, and presentation. While China has a long history of circus acts such as acrobatics, the circuses of China truly began to thrive after receiving government funding beginning in 1949. By 2000 there were more than 250 circus troupes in China, many of which performed throughout the world. Similarly, the circus had been one of the main forms of entertainment for Russians since the late 19th century, and it increased in popularity following the revolution of 1917, as it was seen by Soviet leaders as a form of entertainment that could be enjoyed by all classes. Before the fall of the Soviet Union in 1990, Russian circuses were at their peak, with more than 70 permanent circus buildings and some 50 traveling companies in operation. Since that time notable companies such as the Bolshoi Moscow Circus and the Moscow Russian Circus have continued to thrive.

In addition to such cultures with established histories of the circus, others began to develop national circus traditions as the turn of the 21st century approached. Particularly notable were the circuses of Africa, India, Spain, Brazil, and Mexico, many of which were characterized by acrobatic and athletic exhibitions with traditions rooted in religion and folklore.

Many international circuses began to experiment with different formats. Some European circuses, such as Italy's Circo Americano, attempted to emulate the American pattern by exhibiting simultaneously in three rings. At the same time, there was increasing interest among American producers in adopting, or reverting to, the more-intimate, less-confusing one-ring format. The Big Apple Circus of New York, the Circus Flora of St. Louis, Missouri, the UniverSoul Circus of Atlanta, Georgia, and the Cirque du Soleil from Quebec all employed the single-ring format and performed in tents that seated about 1,600 to 2,000 spectators.

In the 20th century the circus retained many of its essential components while also expanding the scope and extravagance of its displays. By the late 20th century the circus had become an increasingly global entertainment.

By the early 20th century the methods for organizing the circus parade had become standardized. Larger shows sent an “advance car,” which, as its name implies, provided advance publicity for a circus by arriving in town two or three weeks before show day. Bill posters, lithographers, and banner men plastered the town and its environs with tens of thousands of square feet of such “paper.” On circus day the train arrived with its stockcars, perhaps with elephant trunks probing outside openings, and a long line of flatcars loaded with red baggage wagons, pole wagons, bandwagons, tableaux, chariots, the steam boiler wagon, and canvas-covered wild-animal cages. In a large circus, such as the Ringling-Barnum show, there could be several trains.

The show grounds became a scene of highly organized chaos: acres of canvas and a forest of poles were assembled in front of swarms of curious spectators. “Parade call” was then trumpeted, and performers, musicians, animal attendants, wardrobe crews, drivers, and brakemen assembled for the grand free street parade that was usually scheduled for 11:00 AM. Following the bugle brigade heralding the grand event, there was a long procession of horses, flag bearers, bands on magnificent wagons, allegorical tableaux, clowns, knights in armour, beautiful ladies on steeds, Roman chariots, chimes, bells, a band organ, cage after cage of wild animals (some open to view and others closed to prompt curiosity), cowboys, “Indians,” and a long line of highly caparisoned elephants shuffling along trunk-to-tail. The traditional finale to the circus parade was the Pied Piper of the circus, the steam calliope. After two shows daily and the teardown, which took place at night, the wagons and teams followed flares to the train, where they rolled back onto the flatcars to disappear into the night and begin the process again the next day in another town.

Circus acts have always crossed national borders and, traditionally, certain nationalities tend to dominate specific areas of circus performance. Eastern Europeans became known for acrobatics and tumbling over the course of the 20th century. In the groundbreaking high-wire act of the Russian (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) Voljansky troupe, the wire changed from being horizontal to being at an oblique angle, while the tension was maintained. Another unique act, the Koch sisters, performed on a giant semaphore arm that revolved slowly as they balanced on the outside edge. In the late 20th century one of the most renowned Russian trapeze acts, “The Flying Cranes,” used dramatic devices to tell the story of fallen Soviet war heroes whose souls are transformed into cranes. The acrobats fly through the air in white costumes, highlighted by dramatic theatrical lighting and smoke and accompanied by well-known Russian music.

Chinese acrobats also became especially renowned for unique acts emphasizing balance and coordination, such as the “Peacock Bicycle,” which featured a human pyramid of 17 people atop a single bicycle.

Mexican acrobats became known for their skill at the flying trapeze. Trapeze artist Tito Gaona first performed in 1964 at age 15 and—even blindfolded—flawlessly performed the triple somersault from bar to catcher. In 1982 Miguel Vasquez became the first person to do a quadruple somersault from bar to catcher in a public performance.

Such national traditions may be related to the existence of circus families, whose specialties are passed on for several generations. In the 20th century circus families, such as the Wallendas, were still prominent, and they were often responsible for spreading the circus to new parts of the world. For instance, in the early part of the century, the British circus family of Harmston settled in East Asia, and for years their only rival was the Russian circus. The Boswells left England for South Africa, where they met competition from the German circus, Pagel. Frank Brown, whose father had been a clown at Astley's, toured South America for many seasons. In Australia the circus prospered under the Wirth family. The Lobes, from Budapest, made Persia their tenting ground, and the Sidolis settled in Romania.

Modern, or “New Vaudeville,” clowns do not use the traditional clown accoutrements. They usually work alone, typically without makeup, and establish a personal relationship with the audience. Two Americans, Bill Irwin and David Shiner, are perhaps the best-known among New Vaudeville clowns; their talents were featured in the Broadway production Fool Moon (1994). Also among the most renowned of modern clowns is David Larible, who descends from seven generations of Italian circus performers. During the late 20th century Larible became the first clown ever to headline the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus, as well as its “sister” circus, Barnum's Kaleidoscape. His pantomimed act featured strong interaction with the audience, even bringing audience members into the ring to become an important part of the show.

Beginning in the late 20th century, in both Britain and the United States, circus owners were often challenged by activists who believed that cruelty was involved in the training of circus animals and who consequently agitated to have such acts banned. Many circuses responded to such charges by pointing out that the days of training animals through punishment (à la Beatty) were long gone; instead, the humane techniques of such trainers as Gunther Gebel-Williams, a German trainer who became famous with the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus, had become the norm.

Most circus performances maintain a seemingly perpetual flow of music, signaling the changes of emphasis among simultaneous presentations as one event after another is highlighted. For most of the 20th century, major circuses such as Ringling Brothers made great use of the music of the “march king,” John Philip Sousa (Sousa, John Philip). Sousa's music proved highly popular in circuses because its brassy sound and stirring beat added to the sense of spectacle and grandeur. American circuses also incorporated such popular forms of music as the foxtrot, the tango, and the gallop, whereas European circus bands made heavy use of violins, a traditional instrument in the many cultures of that continent. Although one does not tend to think of musicians as star circus performers, Merle Evans, the “Music Maestro of the Big Top,” is fondly remembered for his skilled conducting of the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus band for more than 50 years until his retirement in 1970.

Circus music changed drastically during the late 20th century. The march was no longer king, having been supplanted by more-modern forms, including rock music, while the number of live musicians diminished as many circuses made wide use of the synthesizer and other electronic instruments.

As the circus evolved over the course of the 20th century, many worked to teach and preserve the fundamentals of the art form.

During the 20th century several schools around the world were established to train students in the art of circus skills. In Russia a professional school for the training of circus artists has been associated with the Moscow Circus since 1929. After four years of rigorous course work, graduates are assigned to the nearly 100 circuses that perform throughout the country. In 1985 the French Ministry of Culture and Communication opened a four-year professional school for circus artists, the École Supérieure des Arts du Cirque, at Châlons-sur-Marne. The National Circus School of Montreal is the only private school in North America to offer training in a wide range of circus arts, although there are a number of schools and universities in the United States that provide instruction in specific aspects of the circus. One of the best-known of these was the Ringling organization's “Clown College,” located in Venice, Florida, which was established in 1968 and closed in 1997. Other American institutions that feature the circus include Florida State University's Flying High Circus (begun in 1947) at Tallahassee, whose performers are drawn exclusively from the student body; Circus Smirkus in Greensboro, Vermont, which enrolls children from around the world to collaborate with professional circus coaches; the Gamma Phi Circus at Illinois State University at Normal, which was established in 1929 and is the oldest college circus program in the country; and the University of Virginia (Virginia, University of) at Charlottesville, which offers the only college-accredited course on the history of the circus.

The presence of these schools reflects a growing interest in preserving the colourful past of the circus. Pursuing this goal are collectors and historians throughout the world, as well as associations, including the Circus Fans Association (England and the United States), the Club du Cirque (France), the Society of Friends of the Circus (Germany and Austria), the Circus Historical Society, the Circus Model Builders Association, the Windjammers, the Ringling Museum of the Circus, and the International Clown Hall of Fame (all United States). At Baraboo, Wisconsin, the extensive Circus World Museum, including a Circus Library and Research Center, is operated by the State Historical Society. Each July a train of authentic circus railroad cars transports more than 80 restored circus parade wagons from Baraboo to Milwaukee, where they are joined by hundreds of privately owned baggage horses for a parade through the streets of the city. At Bridgeport, Connecticut, the Barnum Museum features exhibits related to the circus and the life of Barnum. Most major European collections of circus materials remain in private hands, although there are important holdings available to researchers at such institutions as the British Library in London, the library and museum of the Paris Opéra, and the Museum of Circus Art attached to the circus in St. Petersburg.

At the heart of such preservation efforts is a love of the circus. One might term the circus the most democratic of entertainments, because, no matter what the spectator's age or level of sophistication, there is always something interesting and amusing. For these and other reasons, the circus remains preeminently a “live” entertainment, whose pleasures and nuances can never be fully captured on film or television. It is a timeless institution that continues to endure, thrilling people of all nations.