basic group in which witches are said to gather. One of the chief proponents of the theory of a coven was the English Egyptologist Margaret Murray in her work The Witch Cult in Western Europe (1921). According to her a coven consists of 12 witches and a devil as leader. The number is generally taken as a parody of Christ and his 12 disciples. (An alternate theory, stressing the Murray view of a pre-Christian tradition of witches, explains 13 as the maximum number of dancers that can be accommodated in a nine-foot circle.)

Each member of a coven is said to specialize in a particular branch of magic, such as bewitching agricultural produce, producing sickness or death in humans, storm raising, or seduction. The actuality of covens was also accepted by Montague Summers, a well-known Roman Catholic writer on witchcraft in the 1920s and 1930s, and more recently by Pennethorne Hughes in his Witchcraft (1952, 1965). Many students of witchcraft, however, dismiss the Murray theory of covens as unfounded and based on insufficient evidence. Nonetheless, 20th-century witchcraft groups continue to use the term coven, and reports of coven activity in the United States and Europe are not uncommon.