controversial Irish-born British freethinker whose rationalist philosophy forced church historians to seriously consider questions concerning the biblical canon.

Raised a Roman Catholic, Toland converted to Anglicanism before the age of 20 and studied at the universities of Glasgow, Edinburgh, Leiden, and Oxford between 1687 and 1695. In 1696 he published his celebrated Christianity Not Mysterious, in which he tried to show that not all biblical doctrines require faith in order to be understood but are, rather, perfectly intelligible to human reason unaided by divine revelation. The book caused a public uproar, and proceedings were brought against him in Middlesex. Fleeing to Dublin, he learned that the Irish Parliament had condemned his book and ordered his arrest, whereupon he returned to England.

Almost immediately, Toland wrote his Life of Milton (1698), which incurred further wrath for a passage in it that appeared to question the authenticity of the New Testament. This was followed the next year by Amyntor, or a Defence of Milton's Life, in which Toland sought to defend himself by furnishing a catalog of works long-excluded from the biblical canon as apocryphal writings.

In Origines Judaicae (1709; “Origins of the Jews”), Toland claimed that the Jewish people were of Egyptian origin. During his last years, spent primarily in political pamphleteering in England, he wrote Reasons for Naturalizing the Jews (1713) and Nazarenus (1718), in which he discussed the role of the Ebionite sect in early Christianity. Tetradymus (1720) included an essay offering natural explanations for Old Testament miracles, and in Pantheisticon (1720) he proposed a new liturgy that incorporated pagan texts.

Toland's books stimulated contemporary discussion of the New Testament, and his search for a rationalistic religion resulted in Christianity Not Mysterious, which remains a classic exposition of deism.