former slave set free. In ancient Athens, former slaves bore no stigma, and some rose to positions of political or economic power. During the later Hellenistic period, however, some Greek (Greek law) communities passed laws providing separate regulations and restrictions for former slaves. To the Greeks citizenship was a hereditary privilege and thus barred to freedmen, but under Roman law a manumitted slave might become a citizen if the proper legal form was followed, although he did not enjoy full civic rights. In Carolingian (Carolingian dynasty) times the descendants of a freedman could claim the rights of the freeborn only after three generations had passed.

Later, notably in the conditions of North American blacks from colonial times forward, racial differences between slaves and owners reinforced the tendency to attach the stigma of slavery to freedmen and the free offspring of slaves. See Reconstruction; Freedmen's Bureau; black code; Union Leagues; lynching.