preparation of fruit for human consumption.

Fruits are a high-moisture, generally acidic food that is relatively easy to process and that offers a variety of flavour, aroma, colour, and texture to the diet. They are usually low in calories but are an excellent source of dietary fibre and essential vitamins. Owing to the presence of cellulose, pectin, and various organic acids, fruits can also act as natural laxatives. Fruits are therefore a valuable part of the diet.

Of all the vitamins present in fruits, the most noted is vitamin C, or ascorbic acid. Actual quantities of vitamin C in fruits are not especially large, but the vitamin is particularly important in the diet because of its role in the prevention of disease and in the general promotion of good health. Citrus fruits, such as oranges, lemons, and grapefruits, are well known for their vitamin C content. Other sources include most berries and melons. carotene, a chemical common to fruit, is easily converted in the body to vitamin A; cantaloupes, peaches, and apricots are significant sources of this nutrient.

Typically, fruits are high in carbohydrates, although a large range is possible—between 2 and 40 percent, depending on the type of fruit and its maturity. Free sugars usually include fructose, glucose, and sucrose; other sugars may be present in smaller quantities.

A large portion of the carbohydrates present in fruits is fibre, which is not digested and passes through the digestive system. Fibre is usually made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectic substances. A small amount of starch may also be present in fruit, but starches are typically converted to sugars during the ripening process.

A negligible quantity of protein is found in fruits, and they usually contain less than 1 percent fat. Fats are most typically associated with the waxy cuticle surface of the fruit skin. Exceptions to this rule are avocados and olives, the flesh of which may contain as much as 20 percent oil.

Fruits are living biological entities that perform a number of metabolic functions. Two functions of particular importance in fruit processing are respiration (the breaking down of carbohydrates, giving off carbon dioxide and heat) and transpiration (the giving off of moisture). Once the fruit is harvested, respiration and transpiration continue, but only for as long as the fruit can draw on its own food reserves and moisture. It is this limited ability to continue vital metabolic functions that defines fruit as perishable.

Fruit development can generally be divided into three major stages: growth, maturation, and senescence (aging). The period of growth generally involves cell division and enlargement, which accounts for the increasing size of the fruit. Maturation is usually reached just prior to the end of growth and may include flavour development and increase in sugar content (detectable as increasing sweetness). Senescence is the period when chemical synthesizing pathways give way to degradative processes, leading to aging and death of tissue. Fruit ripening is thus the result of many complex changes, some interactive but many independent of one another.

As harvested fruit ages, it is particularly important to manage the temperatures under which it is stored. For example, respiration largely involves enzymatic processes, which are significantly controlled by ambient temperature. The rate of chemical change in fruit generally doubles for every increase of 10° C (at room temperature, roughly 20° F).

Changes that take place during storage as fruit begins to overripen may include extreme colour formation, development of strong off-flavours with intense aroma, softening of the flesh, onset of physiological disorders, and manifestations of disease. In addition, fruit can be injured by overcooling. Chilling injury may be manifested by pitting and browning of the surface and by pitting and darkening of the flesh.

Microorganisms can also cause problems during senescence and storage. Many bacteria and fungi (fungus), for instance, are involved in decay after harvest. Typical fungi include Alternaria, Botrytis, Monilinia, Penicillium, and Rhizopus. These fungi are generally weak pathogens, in that they usually invest only weak or damaged fruit. Efforts to control infection begin in the orchard, usually with the application of fungicides. Cooling of the fruit or, conversely, hot-water dipping may also enhance storage quality. In addition, the careful application of ionizing radiation has been shown to inhibit microbial growth.

Once harvested, fruits are moved to storage. In the case of highly heat-sensitive products such as raspberries or cherries, the fruit should be precooled prior to storage. Precooling can be accomplished by hydrocooling (immersion of the fruit in cold water) or vacuum cooling (moistening and then placing under vacuum in order to induce evaporative cooling).

A typical storage system for fruit is cold storage, using refrigerated air. Other techniques include controlled-atmosphere (CA) storage and hypobaric storage. In CA storage the oxygen and carbon dioxide content of the storage environment are controlled in such a way as to retard senescence and further deterioration of the fruit. In general, oxygen levels are reduced and carbon dioxide levels increased. CA conditions can be generated in a number of ways. Conventional CA depends on the respiration of the fruit to generate carbon dioxide, and the concentration of this gas is controlled by wet scrubbers, hydrated lime, or other commercial carbon dioxide removal systems. Liquid nitrogen and compressed nitrogen gas have also been used to flush out the ambient air of the storage facility. In other systems oxygen is converted to carbon dioxide by reaction with liquid propane or by catalytic burning.

Hypobaric storage involves the cold storage of fruit under partial vacuum. Typical conditions include pressures as low as 80 and 40 millimetres of mercury and temperatures of 5° C (40° F). Hypobaric conditions reduce ethylene production and respiration rates; the result is an extraordinarily high-quality fruit even after months of storage.

Packaging systems for fresh fruit usually involve a simple plastic breathable bag or overwrap. However, as the market value of high-quality fruit has increased, so too have efforts to develop improved packaging. These efforts have been primarily in the area of modified-atmosphere packaging (MAP). In this type of packaging the barrier properties of the material are carefully selected according to the respiration characteristics of the fruit. The goal is to allow an exchange of gases and moisture that produces the optimal storage environment. Continued work in this field is producing “smart” films, which not only produce the optimal atmosphere for storage but also change their barrier properties depending on the ambient temperature and on the respiration rate of the fruit.

After fresh fruit, one of the most common fruit products is fruit juice. Fruit juice can take on many forms, including a natural-style cloudy product, a “nectar”-type product containing suspended solids, a fully clarified juice, juice concentrate, and fruit drinks.

The processing of fruit juice involves washing, extraction, clarification, and preservation.

Fruit is usually washed prior to any processing. Washing is typically conducted with a high-pressure soak or spray system. Under some conditions a surfactant or detergent may be added in order to release stubborn soil attached to the fruit. In apple processing a high-quality wash is necessary to ensure the safe removal of microorganisms responsible for mycotoxin formation and possible gastrointestinal poisoning.

Fruit is prepared for juice extraction by removing unwanted parts. This may include pitting operations for stone fruit such as apricots, cherries, or plums or peeling for such fruits as pineapples. In one large class of fruit, Citrus fruit, juice extraction and separation from the peel are combined. Two major juice extraction systems for citrus exist. One is a reaming technique, in which the fruit is cut in half and the individual halves reamed to extract both the juice and the inner fruit solids. In the second major system, a hole is punched in the fruit and the juice squeezed out at the same time.

If the entire fruit is to be used in the juice, then typically it is disintegrated in a drum grater or a hammer mill. Care must be taken to control disintegration so that the particle size of the mash is compatible with the press system.

Many different types of press are used for juice extraction. The most traditional is a rack-and-frame press, in which ground fruit (mash) is pumped into cloth partitions, called cheeses, which are separated by wooden or metallic racks. After a stack of cheeses has been produced, the press is activated and the juice expressed from the assembly.

Many variations of the rack-and-frame press exist. These include the continuous belt press, the bladder press, and the basket press.

As an alternative to press systems, some processors have gone to total enzymatic liquefaction of the fruit mash. Cellulase and pectinase enzymes (enzyme) are added, and the mash is heated in order to accelerate the enzyme's performance.

If the juice is to be clarified further or concentrated after extraction, treatment with pectinase may be required. The juice is monitored for pectin content using a qualitative pectin check, consisting of combining one part juice with two parts ethanol. If a gel forms, pectin is still present and depectinization must continue. When depectinization is complete, a floc is typically formed by the aggregation of partially degraded pectin-protein aggregates.

Filtration systems are varied in design, operation, and application. The most traditional system is diatomaceous earth (DE) filtration, in which DE is used to aggregate and collect suspended solids. The DE is collected on filter paper inside the pressure filter as the juice passes through the unit. The resulting juice is sparkling clear. Owing to concern over the cost of DE and its disposal, other filtration processes have been designed. The most successful is membrane filtration, in which hollow fibre, open tubular, or ceramic membranes are employed in juice filtration systems.

Once the juice has been clarified, it is ready to be preserved. In some cases large reserves of single-strength juice are kept in juice silos after having been pasteurized, but usually the juice is immediately processed into retail or institutional packages. For a single-strength juice packaging line, a typical process is to heat the juice to 88° C (190° F) and then bottle it. This produces a shelf-stable product.

For producing concentrate, the juice is passed through an evaporator, where the level of soluble solids is typically brought to 70 percent by weight. Retail packages of concentrate are typically filled at 45 percent dissolved solids; at this concentration a three-to-one dilution by the consumer will create a finished product with a soluble solid level of approximately 12 percent.

The making of jellies and other preserves is an old and popular process, providing a means of keeping fruits far beyond their normal storage life and sometimes making use of blemished or off-grade fruits that may not be ideal for fresh consumption. In jelly making, the goal is to produce a clear, brilliant gel from the juice of a chosen fruit. Jams are made from the entire fruit, including the pulp, while preserves are essentially jellies that contain whole or large pieces. Marmalade, usually made from citrus fruit, is a jellylike concentrate of prepared juice and sliced peel.

The essential ingredients for a successful preserve are sugar, acid, and pectin. These three ingredients lower the pH of the preserve and bind available water, thus creating an environment in which the growth of microorganisms is retarded. In some cases the fruit can provide all the pectin and acid that are needed. If the acid content of the fruit is low, external sources such as lemon juice can be added. Similarly, if the planned mix of fruit is low in pectin, a commercial source may be used. Sugar is always added, and in general all of the three essential ingredients have to be added in order to create a successful product.

The making of preserves begins with an initial mix containing not less than 45 parts by weight fruit for every 55 parts by weight sugar solids. The sugar solids are added after the fruit is crushed, and the mix is then cooked. Cooking may be done in a highly controlled vacuum kettle, in which flavour volatiles are captured and returned to the product. The cooking process continues until the heated mix is concentrated to a predetermined level of soluble solids. A generally accepted level is 65 percent soluble solids; at this concentration the boiling temperature is 7° to 12° above the boiling point of water. The product is then transferred to containers and sealed as a shelf-stable product.

The exact amount of sugar needed depends on the acidity level, the natural sugar content, and the type of product desired. If sugar content is too low, the resulting jelly will be tough; excessive sugar, on the other hand, will create a “soft set” that can be broken easily. Appropriate amounts of acid and pectin are added during the cooking process. The pH must be adjusted to an acidic level of approximately 3.1. Increased acidity reduces the amount of sugar needed in the blend, although excessive acidity can cause syneresis, or a separation of liquid from the gel. If the pectin level is inadequate, then the preserve will not “set”; that is, not enough water will be bound to create a complete gel.

Since fruits are generally acidic, they are naturally amenable to preservation. The premier role of acidity in preservation is to stop bacterial growth. Second, increased acidity can activate chemical reactions such as pectin set, which lowers water activity and reduces the possibility of microbial growth.

Dehydration is among the oldest and most common forms of fruit preservation. In dehydration, moisture in the fruit is driven off, leaving a stable food that has a moisture content below that at which microorganisms can grow. There are three basic systems for dehydration: sun drying, such as that used for raisins; hot-air dehydration; and freeze-drying.

Dehydration has a number of advantages. Dehydrated fruit has a virtually unlimited shelf life when held under proper storage conditions. Drying does not significantly reduce the calories or minerals, and vitamin losses are similar to other preservation methods. In addition, by reducing the weight and the need for refrigeration, handling and transportation costs can be reduced dramatically. Dehydrated fruits are typically reduced in weight by 75 to 90 percent.

Although dehydration offers a convenient product form, it usually requires a careful inactivation of enzymes. This is usually accomplished by blanching of the fruit or by chemical inactivation. Typically, sulfur dioxide is added for its antioxidant and preservative effects. In order to control browning, the fruit is often treated prior to dehydration with sodium sulfite and sodium bisulfite.

In thermal processing, heat is used to destroy spoilage organisms and to inactivate troublesome enzymes. Enzymes are typically responsible for browning, softening, and the development of off-flavours. For high-acid fruit products the most typical thermal process is canning, in which fruit or fruit products are hot-filled or heated in a hermetically sealed container. The process temperature is generally in the range of 88° C (190° F).

Chemicals also can be used as a preservative, either through artificial addition or through the action of microorganisms. An example of the latter method is yeast fermentation, which can cause an increase in ethyl alcohol sufficient to preserve the fruit product. Pickling is another example of chemical preservation. In the case of pickling, the product may be preserved by the addition of salt, sugar, acetic acid (vinegar), and alcohol. High sugar content also acts as a fruit preservative by tying up all available moisture so that microorganisms cannot grow.

Although irradiation is an expensive method, it has been shown to be an effective means of extending the shelf life of fresh fruits. Irradiated fruit products have not been well received by the public, even in light of evidence supporting the healthfulness and safety of such foods.

Freezing of fruits and fruit products is a common consumer practice. Cold temperatures act to retard the spoilage of fruit by inhibiting microbial action and slowing metabolic processes. In order to achieve extended storage life, the product must be held well below the freezing point of water—typically at a minimum of -23° C (-10° F). Generally, rapid freezing leads to an improved texture upon thawing.

A prerequisite for effective freezing is inactivation of fruit enzymes (enzyme). Traditionally, this is done through blanching or by the addition of a chemical. Blanching consists of heating the fruit for a short time in water or steam prior to cooling and subsequent freezing. The blanch step is intended to inactivate enzyme systems responsible for off-flavours, browning, and softening.