ideal types of social organizations that were systematically elaborated by German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies (Tönnies, Ferdinand (Julius)) in his influential work Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (1887; Community and Society).

Tönnies's conception of the nature of social systems is based on his distinction between the Gemeinschaft (communal society) and the Gesellschaft (associational society). In the rural, peasant societies that typify the Gemeinschaft, personal relationships are defined and regulated on the basis of traditional social rules. People have simple and direct face-to-face relations with each other that are determined by Wesenwille (natural will)—i.e., natural and spontaneously arising emotions and expressions of sentiment.

The Gesellschaft, in contrast, is the creation of Kürwille (rational will) and is typified by modern, cosmopolitan societies with their government bureaucracies and large industrial organizations. In the Gesellschaft, rational self-interest and calculating conduct act to weaken the traditional bonds of family, kinship, and religion that permeate the Gemeinschaft's structure. In the Gesellschaft, human relations are more impersonal and indirect, being rationally constructed in the interest of efficiency or other economic and political considerations.

The alienation and the breakdown of cohesive peasant values attending the rise of industrialization caused many disenchanted intellectuals to romanticize the Gemeinschaft after World War I. This misuse of Tönnies's dichotomy constituted a failure to understand that Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft were ideal types (ideal type) and not categories of classification.