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Wilson, Woodrow

president of United States

Introduction

in full Thomas Woodrow Wilson

born December 28, 1856, Staunton, Virginia, U.S.

died February 3, 1924, Washington, D.C.

28th president of the United States (1913–21), an American scholar and statesman best remembered for his legislative accomplishments and his high-minded idealism. Wilson led his country into World War I and became the creator and leading advocate of the League of Nations (Nations, League of), for which he was awarded the 1919 Nobel Prize for Peace. During his second term the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, giving women the right to vote, was passed and ratified. He suffered a paralytic stroke while seeking American public support for the Treaty of Versailles (Versailles, Treaty of) (October 1919), and his incapacity, which lasted for the rest of his term of office, caused the worst crisis of presidential disability in American history. (For a discussion of the history and nature of the presidency, see presidency of the United States of America.)

Early life, education, and governorship

Wilson's father, Joseph Ruggles Wilson, was a Presbyterian minister who had moved to Virginia from Ohio and was the son of Scotch-Irish immigrants; his mother, Janet Woodrow, the daughter of a Presbyterian minister, had been born in England of Scottish parentage. Wilson was the only president since Andrew Jackson to have a foreign-born parent.

Naturally enough, the Presbyterian church played a commanding role in the upbringing of “Tommy” Wilson. The family left Virginia before his second birthday, as his father successively held pastorates in Augusta, Georgia, and Wilmington, North Carolina, and taught at the Columbia Theological Seminary in South Carolina. His uncle, James Woodrow, was the leading light of the seminary faculty, and after college the young man dropped his first name both to emphasize the family connection and because he thought “Woodrow Wilson” sounded more dignified. His father served during the Civil War as a chaplain with the Confederate army, and his church in Augusta was turned into a military hospital. The young Wilson was deeply affected by the horrors of the war.

Apparently dyslexic from childhood, Wilson did not learn to read until after he was 10 and never became a rapid reader. Nevertheless, he developed passionate interests in politics and literature. He attended Davidson College near Charlotte, North Carolina, for a year before entering what is now Princeton University in 1875. At Princeton he blossomed intellectually, reading widely, engaging in debate, and editing the college newspaper. While still an undergraduate he published a scholarly essay that compared the American government with the British parliamentary system, a subject that he would develop further in his first book and apply in his own political career.

After graduation from Princeton in 1879, Wilson studied law at the University of Virginia, with the hope that law would lead to politics. Two years of humdrum legal practice in Atlanta, Georgia, disillusioned him, and he abandoned his law career for graduate study in government and history at Johns Hopkins University, where in 1886 he received a Ph.D.; he was the only president to earn that degree.

Wilson's doctoral thesis was also his first book, Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics (1885), which further developed his comparison between the American and parliamentary government and suggested reforms that would make the American system more efficient and more answerable to public opinion. Among his later works are a general analysis of government, The State: Elements of Historical and Practical Politics (1889); a history of the United States, Division and Reunion, 1829–1889 (1893); the five-volume A History of the American People (1902); and Constitutional Government in the United States (1908), in which Wilson elegantly set forth the modern view of the president as “the representative of no constituency, but of the whole people. When he speaks in his true character, he speaks for no special interest.”

In 1885 Wilson married Ellen Louise Axson (Ellen Wilson (Wilson, Ellen)), the daughter of a Presbyterian minister from Rome, Georgia, with whom he had three daughters, Margaret, Jessie, and Eleanor. The marriage was warm and happy, although it was shadowed by Ellen's bouts of depression and Wilson's brief extramarital affair with Mary Allen Peck. Ellen's death in August 1914 devastated Wilson with grief, which lifted only when he met and courted Edith Bolling Galt (Edith Wilson (Wilson, Edith)), whom he married in December 1915.

Wilson was the only professional academic to become president. He began his career teaching history and political science at Bryn Mawr College in 1885 and moved to Wesleyan University in Connecticut in 1888. Two years later he went to Princeton (Princeton University), where he quickly became the most popular and highest-paid faculty member. In 1902 he was the unanimous choice to become president of Princeton. Wilson upgraded the university both financially and intellectually, and he attempted far-reaching reforms of both undergraduate and graduate education. Several of his policies were adopted, but his reforms for restructuring and democratizing the university ran afoul of opposition from faculty conservatives and wealthy alumni and forced him to abandon several of his key plans.

Meanwhile, the publicity that Wilson had generated as Princeton's president attracted the attention of conservative kingmakers in the Democratic Party, who offered him the 1910 nomination for governor of New Jersey. Wilson resigned from the university, and, artfully turning the tables on his patrons, he won the governorship with a dynamic, progressive campaign. Once in office he put his earlier ideas about parliamentary practices to work in implementing a sweeping reform program that gave him a national reputation and made him a contender for the Democratic presidential nomination.

Prevailing at the 1912 convention after a hard struggle against better-entrenched rivals, Wilson entered into an exciting three-way race for president. Former president Theodore Roosevelt (Roosevelt, Theodore)'s bolt to the Progressive (Bull Moose) Party (Bull Moose Party) had split the dominant Republican Party, a factor that allowed Wilson to be elected with only 42 percent of the popular vote but with an electoral college landslide of 435 votes to Roosevelt's 88 and William Howard Taft (Taft, William Howard)'s 8. In that campaign, Wilson answered Roosevelt's call for a “ New Nationalism” with his own equally compelling vision of a “New Freedom.” Wilson was the first Southern-born president elected since the Civil War. (See primary source document: First Inaugural Address (Woodrow Wilson: First Inaugural Address).)

First term as president

The presidency offered Wilson his supreme chance to put his ideas about government to work. Admitting that he intended to conduct himself as a prime minister, he drew up a legislative program in advance, broke with previous presidential practice by appearing before Congress in person, and worked mainly through his party. Important help in keeping congressional Democrats in line came from the party's three-time unsuccessful presidential nominee, William Jennings Bryan (Bryan, William Jennings), whom Wilson appointed secretary of state. Indispensable policy advice came from the controversial Boston attorney Louis Brandeis (Brandeis, Louis), who had helped Wilson formulate the New Freedom agenda during the campaign. Wilson also kept Congress in session continually from April 1913 to October 1914, almost a year and a half, something that had never before happened, not even during the Civil War.

Wilson's approach achieved spectacular results. He won his first victory with passage of the Underwood-Simmons Tariff, which reduced duties on imports for the first time in 40 years. Accompanying the new tariff, to offset lost revenues, was an income tax (taxation), which was permitted under the recently adopted Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution. Wilson's second victory came when, after months of complicated debate and bargaining over banking and currency reform, Congress passed the act creating the Federal Reserve System, which remains the most powerful government agency in economic affairs. A third victory came with passage of the Clayton Antitrust Act, which strengthened existing laws against anticompetitive business actions and gave labour unions (organized labour) relief from court injunctions. Accompanying this act was one creating the Federal Trade Commission, which remains a major agency overseeing business practices.

Wilson followed those legislative accomplishments with a second wave of reform measures in 1916. In part to attract Roosevelt's Progressive voters of 1912, he pushed through Congress laws to create an agency to regulate overseas shipping, to make the first government loans to farmers, to prohibit child labour, to raise income and inheritance taxes, and to mandate an eight-hour workday for railroad workers. Wilson also nominated Brandeis to a justiceship on the Supreme Court and successfully fought for his confirmation in the Senate. Brandeis, who served until 1939, was the first Jewish justice and became a major force on the Supreme Court. These victories were even more impressive than the earlier ones, because losses in the 1914 elections had reduced the Democrats' majorities in Congress and because the Republicans' opposition had hardened.

Foreign affairs bedeviled Wilson from his first days in the White House. Latin America was the first trouble spot. Though critical of previous Republican interventionism in that region, Wilson and Bryan soon followed the same course, occupying Haiti and the Dominican Republic and governing them as protectorates. Mexico, which was torn by revolution (Mexican Revolution) and counterrevolution, proved most vexing of all. First adopting a policy of “watchful waiting” and then seeking to overthrow the military dictatorship of Victoriano Huerta (Huerta, Victoriano) only dragged the United States into interventions by the navy at Veracruz (Veracruz incident) in 1914 and by the army in 1916 in a “punitive expedition” to chase the guerrilla leader Pancho Villa (Villa, Pancho), who had raided across the border into New Mexico. Wilson eventually reconciled himself to a hands-off stance toward Mexico.

The outbreak of World War I in August 1914, which coincided with his wife's death, tried Wilson's mind and soul. Almost no one questioned American neutrality in the beginning, but both the British blockade of maritime trade and German U-boat attacks soon made neutrality painful. On May 7, 1915, when a U-boat sank the British liner Lusitania, killing more than 1,100 people, including 128 Americans, the war came home with a vengeance. Wilson at first urged his countrymen to show restraint, declaring, “There is such a thing as a man being too proud to fight,” but he also pressed the Germans to rein in their submarines and decided to build up the armed forces. Those moves impelled Bryan (Bryan, William Jennings) to resign in protest and to oppose Wilson politically. A combination of patience and firmness on the president's part paid off when the Germans, for military reasons of their own, pledged to curtail submarine warfare in April 1916. For the rest of that year the threat of war receded, while relations with Great Britain worsened because of their ever-tightening blockade and their brutal suppression of the Easter Rising, the armed revolt in Ireland that eventually led to independence.

Second term as president

Wilson prevailed in the 1916 election, becoming the first Democrat to win a second consecutive term since Andrew Jackson. His narrow victory by 277 to 254 electoral votes over Charles Evans Hughes (Hughes, Charles Evans), the nominee of the reunited and resurgent Republicans, was a great political feat. The campaign cry “He kept us out of war” helped, but Wilson's domestic record on progressive and labour issues played the biggest part in his achieving a healthy plurality in the popular vote and a small electoral margin. (See primary source document: Second Inaugural Address (Woodrow Wilson: Second Inaugural Address).)

His reelection assured, Wilson mounted a peace offensive in December 1916 and January 1917 aimed at ending the world war. First he made a public diplomatic appeal to the belligerent nations to state their peace terms and accept American mediation, and then on January 22 he gave a stirring speech in which he called for a “peace without victory” and pledged to establish a league of nations to prevent future wars.

Unfortunately, the Germans rendered Wilson's peace efforts moot by unleashing their submarines on February 1. For the next two months Wilson agonized over how to respond. Public opinion remained divided and uncertain, even after publication of the Zimmermann Telegram (Zimmermann, Arthur), a secret communication by the German foreign secretary that offered Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona to Mexico in return for going to war against the United States. Wilson finally decided to intervene, mainly because he could see no alternative and hoped to use American belligerency as a means to build a just, lasting peace. On April 2, 1917, he went before Congress to ask for a declaration of war so that the United States could strive to fulfill his injunction that “the world must be made safe for democracy.” (See primary source document: War Message (Woodrow Wilson: War Message).)

Wilson proved to be a surprisingly effective war president. Recognizing what he did not know, he delegated military decisions to professional soldiers, particularly General John J. Pershing (Pershing, John J), who commanded the American Expeditionary Force in France, and economic mobilization to such men as Bernard Baruch (Baruch, Bernard), William Gibbs McAdoo (McAdoo, William G), and Herbert Hoover (Hoover, Herbert). Careful planning also ensured the success of the Selective Service Act, which became law in May. This helped to raise the strength of the armed forces to five million men and women, two million of whom reached France by the war's end. The boost given to the Allies by American money, supplies, and manpower tipped the scales against the Germans, who sued for peace and laid down their arms with the Armistice of November 11, 1918.

A less happy side to Wilson's delegation of war-making tasks came at home, where some of his cabinet members, most notably U.S. Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer (Palmer, A. Mitchell), brutally suppressed dissent. The overzealous hounding of radical groups, aliens, and dissidents both during the war and in the Red Scare of 1919–20 was justified on grounds of national security but was condemned by civil libertarians and ultimately discredited. Diplomacy was the one job that Wilson kept to himself. He seized the initiative on war aims with his Fourteen Points speech of January 8, 1918, in which he promised a liberal, nonpunitive peace and a league of nations. Determined to keep those promises, Wilson made the controversial decision to go in person to the Paris Peace Conference, where he spent seven months in wearying, often acrimonious negotiations with the British, French, and Italians. The final product, the Treaty of Versailles (Versailles, Treaty of), was signed on June 28, 1919. The treaty's financial and territorial terms severely compromised Wilson's aims, but those were offset by its inclusion of the Covenant of the League of Nations (Nations, League of), which he believed would adjust international differences and maintain peace. (See primary source document: League of Nations (Woodrow Wilson: The League of Nations).)

Wilson returned from the peace conference exhausted and in failing health, in no shape to face the biggest fight of his career. Republican senators, led by Henry Cabot Lodge (Lodge, Henry Cabot), sought either to reject the treaty or to attach reservations that would gravely limit America's commitments to the League of Nations. After two months of frustrating talks with senators, Wilson took his case to the people in September 1919 in the hope of shaping public opinion on this important issue of the day. A master of the English language and public oratory, he threw himself into a whirlwind cross-country tour, giving 39 speeches in three weeks.

The strain, both mental and physical, was too much for him. He had a near breakdown on September 25, after which his doctor canceled the rest of the tour and rushed him back to Washington. On October 2, 1919, Wilson suffered a massive stroke that left him partially paralyzed on his left side. His intellectual capacity was not affected, but his emotional balance and judgment were badly impaired.

This was the worst crisis of presidential disability in American history, and it was handled badly. No one seriously suggested that Wilson resign. His wife, Edith (Wilson, Edith), controlled access to him, made decisions by default, and engineered a cover-up of his condition, which included misleadingly optimistic reports from his doctors. Although he gradually recovered from the worst effects of the stroke, Wilson never again fully functioned as president.

The peace treaty went down to defeat in the Senate, as a consequence of Wilson's stroke-induced rigidity. He demanded that Democratic senators spurn all efforts at compromise with Lodge and the Republicans. Twice, on November 19, 1919, and March 19, 1920, the Treaty of Versailles failed to gain the two-thirds vote necessary for ratification. Later, under Warren G. Harding (Harding, Warren G.), Wilson's Republican successor, the United States made a separate peace with Germany, something Wilson had believed “would place ineffable stain upon the gallantry and honor of the United States.” The United States never joined the League of Nations.

In the 1920 election Wilson called for “a great and solemn referendum” on the treaty and the League of Nations and entertained fantasies about running on that issue himself. Edith Wilson and his closest friends quietly scotched those notions. Instead, the Democrats nominated James M. Cox (Cox, James M), the governor of Ohio, on the strength of his lack of association with Wilson, although an administration loyalist, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt (Roosevelt, Franklin D.), received the vice presidential nomination. The election did become a referendum on Wilson, as Harding called for a return to “normalcy” and blamed all the country's troubles on the man in the White House. The Republicans won a landslide victory, which they interpreted as a mandate to reverse Wilson's progressive policies at home and his internationalism abroad.

Later years

Wilson lived in Washington for almost three years after leaving office in March 1921. Though an invalid, he never wavered in his conviction that the United States should and would eventually join the League of Nations, and he took a keen interest in politics. In one of his last public appearances he rode in the funeral procession of his younger and supposedly healthy successor, Harding. Wilson died in his sleep at his Washington home. His remains were interred in the newly begun National Cathedral; he is the only president buried in the capital city. His historical reputation at first suffered from his failure to carry the day in his last years and the ascendancy of the Republicans, and it declined further during the 1930s with the “revisionist” revulsion against World War I. But during World War II Wilson's reputation soared, as he came to be regarded as a wrongly unheeded prophet whose policies would have prevented world calamity. The United Nations and collective security pacts are viewed as fulfillment of Wilson's internationalist vision.

For an additional writing by Wilson, see The Fear of Monopoly (Woodrow Wilson: The Fear of Monopoly).

John Milton Cooper, Jr.

Cabinet of President Woodrow Wilson

Cabinet of President Woodrow Wilson Cabinet of President Woodrow WilsonThe table provides a list of cabinet members in the administration of President Woodrow Wilson.

Additional Reading

Arthur S. Link (ed.), The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 69 vol. (1966–93), is an annotated documentary record.Biographies include Ray Stannard Baker, Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters, 8 vol. (1927–39, reprinted 1968), an authorized work; Arthur S. Link, Wilson, 5 vol. (1947–65), the definitive biography up to World War I; Arthur Walworth, Woodrow Wilson, 3rd ed. (1978), comprehensive, thoroughly documented, and carefully balanced; John M. Mulder, Woodrow Wilson (1978), an account of his early intellectual and religious development; Henry W. Bragdon, Woodrow Wilson: The Academic Years (1967), an examination of Wilson's career at Princeton; Stockton Axson, Brother Woodrow, a memoir by Wilson's brother-in-law; Edwin A. Weinstein, Woodrow Wilson (1981), a psychobiography; John Milton Cooper, The Warrior and the Priest (1983), comparing Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt; August Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson (1991); and Jan Willem Schulte Nordholt, Woodrow Wilson (1991).David H. Burton, The Learned Presidency: Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, Woodrow Wilson (1988), advances the concept that the philosophies of these three presidents helped transform the passive presidencies of the 19th century into the dynamic presidencies of the 20th century. Kendrick A. Clements, The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson (1992), discusses his terms in office; and Niels Aage Thorsen, The Political and Economic Thought of Woodrow Wilson, 1875–1910 (1988), explores the formation of Wilson's political philosophy.Wilson's first wife is the subject of Frances Wright Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson (1985); while Tom Schachtman, Edith & Woodrow (1981), relates the story of the widower's second marriage.John Milton Cooper, Jr.

词条	Wilson, Woodrow
释义	Wilson, Woodrow president of United States Introduction in full Thomas Woodrow Wilson born December 28, 1856, Staunton, Virginia, U.S. died February 3, 1924, Washington, D.C. 28th president of the United States (1913–21), an American scholar and statesman best remembered for his legislative accomplishments and his high-minded idealism. Wilson led his country into World War I and became the creator and leading advocate of the League of Nations (Nations, League of), for which he was awarded the 1919 Nobel Prize for Peace. During his second term the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, giving women the right to vote, was passed and ratified. He suffered a paralytic stroke while seeking American public support for the Treaty of Versailles (Versailles, Treaty of) (October 1919), and his incapacity, which lasted for the rest of his term of office, caused the worst crisis of presidential disability in American history. (For a discussion of the history and nature of the presidency, see presidency of the United States of America.) Early life, education, and governorship Wilson's father, Joseph Ruggles Wilson, was a Presbyterian minister who had moved to Virginia from Ohio and was the son of Scotch-Irish immigrants; his mother, Janet Woodrow, the daughter of a Presbyterian minister, had been born in England of Scottish parentage. Wilson was the only president since Andrew Jackson to have a foreign-born parent. Naturally enough, the Presbyterian church played a commanding role in the upbringing of “Tommy” Wilson. The family left Virginia before his second birthday, as his father successively held pastorates in Augusta, Georgia, and Wilmington, North Carolina, and taught at the Columbia Theological Seminary in South Carolina. His uncle, James Woodrow, was the leading light of the seminary faculty, and after college the young man dropped his first name both to emphasize the family connection and because he thought “Woodrow Wilson” sounded more dignified. His father served during the Civil War as a chaplain with the Confederate army, and his church in Augusta was turned into a military hospital. The young Wilson was deeply affected by the horrors of the war. Apparently dyslexic from childhood, Wilson did not learn to read until after he was 10 and never became a rapid reader. Nevertheless, he developed passionate interests in politics and literature. He attended Davidson College near Charlotte, North Carolina, for a year before entering what is now Princeton University in 1875. At Princeton he blossomed intellectually, reading widely, engaging in debate, and editing the college newspaper. While still an undergraduate he published a scholarly essay that compared the American government with the British parliamentary system, a subject that he would develop further in his first book and apply in his own political career. After graduation from Princeton in 1879, Wilson studied law at the University of Virginia, with the hope that law would lead to politics. Two years of humdrum legal practice in Atlanta, Georgia, disillusioned him, and he abandoned his law career for graduate study in government and history at Johns Hopkins University, where in 1886 he received a Ph.D.; he was the only president to earn that degree. Wilson's doctoral thesis was also his first book, Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics (1885), which further developed his comparison between the American and parliamentary government and suggested reforms that would make the American system more efficient and more answerable to public opinion. Among his later works are a general analysis of government, The State: Elements of Historical and Practical Politics (1889); a history of the United States, Division and Reunion, 1829–1889 (1893); the five-volume A History of the American People (1902); and Constitutional Government in the United States (1908), in which Wilson elegantly set forth the modern view of the president as “the representative of no constituency, but of the whole people. When he speaks in his true character, he speaks for no special interest.” In 1885 Wilson married Ellen Louise Axson (Ellen Wilson (Wilson, Ellen)), the daughter of a Presbyterian minister from Rome, Georgia, with whom he had three daughters, Margaret, Jessie, and Eleanor. The marriage was warm and happy, although it was shadowed by Ellen's bouts of depression and Wilson's brief extramarital affair with Mary Allen Peck. Ellen's death in August 1914 devastated Wilson with grief, which lifted only when he met and courted Edith Bolling Galt (Edith Wilson (Wilson, Edith)), whom he married in December 1915. Wilson was the only professional academic to become president. He began his career teaching history and political science at Bryn Mawr College in 1885 and moved to Wesleyan University in Connecticut in 1888. Two years later he went to Princeton (Princeton University), where he quickly became the most popular and highest-paid faculty member. In 1902 he was the unanimous choice to become president of Princeton. Wilson upgraded the university both financially and intellectually, and he attempted far-reaching reforms of both undergraduate and graduate education. Several of his policies were adopted, but his reforms for restructuring and democratizing the university ran afoul of opposition from faculty conservatives and wealthy alumni and forced him to abandon several of his key plans. Meanwhile, the publicity that Wilson had generated as Princeton's president attracted the attention of conservative kingmakers in the Democratic Party, who offered him the 1910 nomination for governor of New Jersey. Wilson resigned from the university, and, artfully turning the tables on his patrons, he won the governorship with a dynamic, progressive campaign. Once in office he put his earlier ideas about parliamentary practices to work in implementing a sweeping reform program that gave him a national reputation and made him a contender for the Democratic presidential nomination. Prevailing at the 1912 convention after a hard struggle against better-entrenched rivals, Wilson entered into an exciting three-way race for president. Former president Theodore Roosevelt (Roosevelt, Theodore)'s bolt to the Progressive (Bull Moose) Party (Bull Moose Party) had split the dominant Republican Party, a factor that allowed Wilson to be elected with only 42 percent of the popular vote but with an electoral college landslide of 435 votes to Roosevelt's 88 and William Howard Taft (Taft, William Howard)'s 8. In that campaign, Wilson answered Roosevelt's call for a “ New Nationalism” with his own equally compelling vision of a “New Freedom.” Wilson was the first Southern-born president elected since the Civil War. (See primary source document: First Inaugural Address (Woodrow Wilson: First Inaugural Address).) First term as president The presidency offered Wilson his supreme chance to put his ideas about government to work. Admitting that he intended to conduct himself as a prime minister, he drew up a legislative program in advance, broke with previous presidential practice by appearing before Congress in person, and worked mainly through his party. Important help in keeping congressional Democrats in line came from the party's three-time unsuccessful presidential nominee, William Jennings Bryan (Bryan, William Jennings), whom Wilson appointed secretary of state. Indispensable policy advice came from the controversial Boston attorney Louis Brandeis (Brandeis, Louis), who had helped Wilson formulate the New Freedom agenda during the campaign. Wilson also kept Congress in session continually from April 1913 to October 1914, almost a year and a half, something that had never before happened, not even during the Civil War. Wilson's approach achieved spectacular results. He won his first victory with passage of the Underwood-Simmons Tariff, which reduced duties on imports for the first time in 40 years. Accompanying the new tariff, to offset lost revenues, was an income tax (taxation), which was permitted under the recently adopted Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution. Wilson's second victory came when, after months of complicated debate and bargaining over banking and currency reform, Congress passed the act creating the Federal Reserve System, which remains the most powerful government agency in economic affairs. A third victory came with passage of the Clayton Antitrust Act, which strengthened existing laws against anticompetitive business actions and gave labour unions (organized labour) relief from court injunctions. Accompanying this act was one creating the Federal Trade Commission, which remains a major agency overseeing business practices. Wilson followed those legislative accomplishments with a second wave of reform measures in 1916. In part to attract Roosevelt's Progressive voters of 1912, he pushed through Congress laws to create an agency to regulate overseas shipping, to make the first government loans to farmers, to prohibit child labour, to raise income and inheritance taxes, and to mandate an eight-hour workday for railroad workers. Wilson also nominated Brandeis to a justiceship on the Supreme Court and successfully fought for his confirmation in the Senate. Brandeis, who served until 1939, was the first Jewish justice and became a major force on the Supreme Court. These victories were even more impressive than the earlier ones, because losses in the 1914 elections had reduced the Democrats' majorities in Congress and because the Republicans' opposition had hardened. Foreign affairs bedeviled Wilson from his first days in the White House. Latin America was the first trouble spot. Though critical of previous Republican interventionism in that region, Wilson and Bryan soon followed the same course, occupying Haiti and the Dominican Republic and governing them as protectorates. Mexico, which was torn by revolution (Mexican Revolution) and counterrevolution, proved most vexing of all. First adopting a policy of “watchful waiting” and then seeking to overthrow the military dictatorship of Victoriano Huerta (Huerta, Victoriano) only dragged the United States into interventions by the navy at Veracruz (Veracruz incident) in 1914 and by the army in 1916 in a “punitive expedition” to chase the guerrilla leader Pancho Villa (Villa, Pancho), who had raided across the border into New Mexico. Wilson eventually reconciled himself to a hands-off stance toward Mexico. The outbreak of World War I in August 1914, which coincided with his wife's death, tried Wilson's mind and soul. Almost no one questioned American neutrality in the beginning, but both the British blockade of maritime trade and German U-boat attacks soon made neutrality painful. On May 7, 1915, when a U-boat sank the British liner Lusitania, killing more than 1,100 people, including 128 Americans, the war came home with a vengeance. Wilson at first urged his countrymen to show restraint, declaring, “There is such a thing as a man being too proud to fight,” but he also pressed the Germans to rein in their submarines and decided to build up the armed forces. Those moves impelled Bryan (Bryan, William Jennings) to resign in protest and to oppose Wilson politically. A combination of patience and firmness on the president's part paid off when the Germans, for military reasons of their own, pledged to curtail submarine warfare in April 1916. For the rest of that year the threat of war receded, while relations with Great Britain worsened because of their ever-tightening blockade and their brutal suppression of the Easter Rising, the armed revolt in Ireland that eventually led to independence. Second term as president Wilson prevailed in the 1916 election, becoming the first Democrat to win a second consecutive term since Andrew Jackson. His narrow victory by 277 to 254 electoral votes over Charles Evans Hughes (Hughes, Charles Evans), the nominee of the reunited and resurgent Republicans, was a great political feat. The campaign cry “He kept us out of war” helped, but Wilson's domestic record on progressive and labour issues played the biggest part in his achieving a healthy plurality in the popular vote and a small electoral margin. (See primary source document: Second Inaugural Address (Woodrow Wilson: Second Inaugural Address).) His reelection assured, Wilson mounted a peace offensive in December 1916 and January 1917 aimed at ending the world war. First he made a public diplomatic appeal to the belligerent nations to state their peace terms and accept American mediation, and then on January 22 he gave a stirring speech in which he called for a “peace without victory” and pledged to establish a league of nations to prevent future wars. Unfortunately, the Germans rendered Wilson's peace efforts moot by unleashing their submarines on February 1. For the next two months Wilson agonized over how to respond. Public opinion remained divided and uncertain, even after publication of the Zimmermann Telegram (Zimmermann, Arthur), a secret communication by the German foreign secretary that offered Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona to Mexico in return for going to war against the United States. Wilson finally decided to intervene, mainly because he could see no alternative and hoped to use American belligerency as a means to build a just, lasting peace. On April 2, 1917, he went before Congress to ask for a declaration of war so that the United States could strive to fulfill his injunction that “the world must be made safe for democracy.” (See primary source document: War Message (Woodrow Wilson: War Message).) Wilson proved to be a surprisingly effective war president. Recognizing what he did not know, he delegated military decisions to professional soldiers, particularly General John J. Pershing (Pershing, John J), who commanded the American Expeditionary Force in France, and economic mobilization to such men as Bernard Baruch (Baruch, Bernard), William Gibbs McAdoo (McAdoo, William G), and Herbert Hoover (Hoover, Herbert). Careful planning also ensured the success of the Selective Service Act, which became law in May. This helped to raise the strength of the armed forces to five million men and women, two million of whom reached France by the war's end. The boost given to the Allies by American money, supplies, and manpower tipped the scales against the Germans, who sued for peace and laid down their arms with the Armistice of November 11, 1918. A less happy side to Wilson's delegation of war-making tasks came at home, where some of his cabinet members, most notably U.S. Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer (Palmer, A. Mitchell), brutally suppressed dissent. The overzealous hounding of radical groups, aliens, and dissidents both during the war and in the Red Scare of 1919–20 was justified on grounds of national security but was condemned by civil libertarians and ultimately discredited. Diplomacy was the one job that Wilson kept to himself. He seized the initiative on war aims with his Fourteen Points speech of January 8, 1918, in which he promised a liberal, nonpunitive peace and a league of nations. Determined to keep those promises, Wilson made the controversial decision to go in person to the Paris Peace Conference, where he spent seven months in wearying, often acrimonious negotiations with the British, French, and Italians. The final product, the Treaty of Versailles (Versailles, Treaty of), was signed on June 28, 1919. The treaty's financial and territorial terms severely compromised Wilson's aims, but those were offset by its inclusion of the Covenant of the League of Nations (Nations, League of), which he believed would adjust international differences and maintain peace. (See primary source document: League of Nations (Woodrow Wilson: The League of Nations).) Wilson returned from the peace conference exhausted and in failing health, in no shape to face the biggest fight of his career. Republican senators, led by Henry Cabot Lodge (Lodge, Henry Cabot), sought either to reject the treaty or to attach reservations that would gravely limit America's commitments to the League of Nations. After two months of frustrating talks with senators, Wilson took his case to the people in September 1919 in the hope of shaping public opinion on this important issue of the day. A master of the English language and public oratory, he threw himself into a whirlwind cross-country tour, giving 39 speeches in three weeks. The strain, both mental and physical, was too much for him. He had a near breakdown on September 25, after which his doctor canceled the rest of the tour and rushed him back to Washington. On October 2, 1919, Wilson suffered a massive stroke that left him partially paralyzed on his left side. His intellectual capacity was not affected, but his emotional balance and judgment were badly impaired. This was the worst crisis of presidential disability in American history, and it was handled badly. No one seriously suggested that Wilson resign. His wife, Edith (Wilson, Edith), controlled access to him, made decisions by default, and engineered a cover-up of his condition, which included misleadingly optimistic reports from his doctors. Although he gradually recovered from the worst effects of the stroke, Wilson never again fully functioned as president. The peace treaty went down to defeat in the Senate, as a consequence of Wilson's stroke-induced rigidity. He demanded that Democratic senators spurn all efforts at compromise with Lodge and the Republicans. Twice, on November 19, 1919, and March 19, 1920, the Treaty of Versailles failed to gain the two-thirds vote necessary for ratification. Later, under Warren G. Harding (Harding, Warren G.), Wilson's Republican successor, the United States made a separate peace with Germany, something Wilson had believed “would place ineffable stain upon the gallantry and honor of the United States.” The United States never joined the League of Nations. In the 1920 election Wilson called for “a great and solemn referendum” on the treaty and the League of Nations and entertained fantasies about running on that issue himself. Edith Wilson and his closest friends quietly scotched those notions. Instead, the Democrats nominated James M. Cox (Cox, James M), the governor of Ohio, on the strength of his lack of association with Wilson, although an administration loyalist, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt (Roosevelt, Franklin D.), received the vice presidential nomination. The election did become a referendum on Wilson, as Harding called for a return to “normalcy” and blamed all the country's troubles on the man in the White House. The Republicans won a landslide victory, which they interpreted as a mandate to reverse Wilson's progressive policies at home and his internationalism abroad. Later years Wilson lived in Washington for almost three years after leaving office in March 1921. Though an invalid, he never wavered in his conviction that the United States should and would eventually join the League of Nations, and he took a keen interest in politics. In one of his last public appearances he rode in the funeral procession of his younger and supposedly healthy successor, Harding. Wilson died in his sleep at his Washington home. His remains were interred in the newly begun National Cathedral; he is the only president buried in the capital city. His historical reputation at first suffered from his failure to carry the day in his last years and the ascendancy of the Republicans, and it declined further during the 1930s with the “revisionist” revulsion against World War I. But during World War II Wilson's reputation soared, as he came to be regarded as a wrongly unheeded prophet whose policies would have prevented world calamity. The United Nations and collective security pacts are viewed as fulfillment of Wilson's internationalist vision. For an additional writing by Wilson, see The Fear of Monopoly (Woodrow Wilson: The Fear of Monopoly). John Milton Cooper, Jr. Cabinet of President Woodrow Wilson Cabinet of President Woodrow Wilson Cabinet of President Woodrow WilsonThe table provides a list of cabinet members in the administration of President Woodrow Wilson. Additional Reading Arthur S. Link (ed.), The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 69 vol. (1966–93), is an annotated documentary record.Biographies include Ray Stannard Baker, Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters, 8 vol. (1927–39, reprinted 1968), an authorized work; Arthur S. Link, Wilson, 5 vol. (1947–65), the definitive biography up to World War I; Arthur Walworth, Woodrow Wilson, 3rd ed. (1978), comprehensive, thoroughly documented, and carefully balanced; John M. Mulder, Woodrow Wilson (1978), an account of his early intellectual and religious development; Henry W. Bragdon, Woodrow Wilson: The Academic Years (1967), an examination of Wilson's career at Princeton; Stockton Axson, Brother Woodrow, a memoir by Wilson's brother-in-law; Edwin A. Weinstein, Woodrow Wilson (1981), a psychobiography; John Milton Cooper, The Warrior and the Priest (1983), comparing Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt; August Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson (1991); and Jan Willem Schulte Nordholt, Woodrow Wilson (1991).David H. Burton, The Learned Presidency: Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, Woodrow Wilson (1988), advances the concept that the philosophies of these three presidents helped transform the passive presidencies of the 19th century into the dynamic presidencies of the 20th century. Kendrick A. Clements, The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson (1992), discusses his terms in office; and Niels Aage Thorsen, The Political and Economic Thought of Woodrow Wilson, 1875–1910 (1988), explores the formation of Wilson's political philosophy.Wilson's first wife is the subject of Frances Wright Saunders, Ellen Axson Wilson (1985); while Tom Schachtman, Edith & Woodrow (1981), relates the story of the widower's second marriage.John Milton Cooper, Jr.
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