aspect of communications involving the relations between an entity subject to or seeking public attention and the various publics that are or may be interested in it. The entity seeking attention may be a business corporation, an individual politician, a performer or author, a government or government agency, a charitable organization, a religious body, or almost any other person or organization. The publics may include segments as narrow as female voters of a particular political party who are between 35 and 50 years of age or the shareholders in a particular corporation; or the publics may be as broad as any national population or the world at large. The concerns of public relations operate both ways between the subject entity, which may be thought of as the client, and the publics involved. The important elements of public relations are to acquaint the client with the public conceptions of the client and to affect these perceptions by focusing, curtailing, amplifying, or augmenting information about the client as it is conveyed to the publics.

The empire builders of the 19th century often disdained a curious public and an inquisitive press, but this attitude soon came under fire from muckraking journalists. In 1906 Ivy Lee (Lee, Ivy Ledbetter), a former newspaperman, became publicity adviser to a group of American anthracite coal-mine operators who had aroused the anger of the press by their haughty attitudes toward miners and the press in labour disputes. Lee persuaded the mine owners to abandon their refusal to answer questions, and he shortly sent out an announcement that the operators would supply the press with all possible information. Later that year he was retained by the Pennsylvania Railroad and brought into effect a new practice: giving the press full information about railroad accidents. In this he was forging a major ingredient of what had not yet come to be called public relations.

Government agencies began hiring publicists in Great Britain (United Kingdom) and the United States; (United States) U.S. legislation (1913) required congressional authorization to spend government funds on “publicity experts,” whereupon the experts masqueraded under such euphemisms as “director of information.” The natural affinity of government for public relations, little explored since Machiavelli, was flowering. From 1924 to 1933 in England, the Empire Marketing Board used large-scale publicity to promote trade; it has been called “the archetype of government public relations departments.” In Great Britain, as in the United States, the appointment of public relations directors by various government departments during World War II was a prelude to greatly increased postwar emphasis on public relations. Within a decade hardly an agency of any government was without its public relations staff. Perhaps more importantly, public relations had come to be recognized as indispensable to any organization subject to attention in the press and the rapidly developing broadcast media.

There was, however, no uniformly accepted simple definition of the craft, trade, dodge, or art of public relations, and there is none today. This is true in large part because of the great variety of its elements. These include generating favourable publicity and knowing what kind of story is likely to be printed or broadcast. This rudimentary aspect of public relations is complicated by the variety of media; besides newspapers, magazines, and radio and television, there are publications of professional associations, recreational groups, and trade associations; producers of stage, motion-picture, and television entertainment; direct mail lists; and others.

Public relations embraces a serious element of the ethical counseling and sociological education of the client. One of the great American practitioners, Earl Newsom, would force his carefully selected clients' attention to the 19th-century classic The Crowd (1896; La Psychologie des foules, 1895), by the French sociologist Gustave LeBon, to persuade them that kings (and business potentates) were no longer the rulers but that the crowd—the public—was now sovereign and must be pleased. Public-relations counselors to airplane manufacturers and airlines persuaded their clients, as Ivy Lee had done the railroads, to be candid and forthright with the facts and to supply the background necessary for context and understanding when airplane crashes occurred. This element of public relations is complicated and sometimes obscured by the flamboyance of self-promoters in the field and by the excesses of occasional charlatans. It is also complicated by divergent views, for a minority of practitioners believes that silence and secrecy—“stonewalling,” if need be—are the proper response to a deluge of adverse publicity.

The role of public relations was once defined by Edward L. Bernays (Bernays, Edward L.), one of its pioneers, as “the engineering of consent.” The characterization is accurate, but out of context it oversimplifies and has been used to attack public relations as cynical and manipulative. The real tasks of public relations in the business world may focus on corporate interests or those of marketing products or services; on image creation or defense against attack; on broad public relations or straight publicity. In general, the strategic goal of public relations is to project a favourable public image, one of corporate good citizenship; but this cannot be accomplished with lights and mirrors in an age of investigative journalism, and the first responsibility of public relations is to persuade management that the reality must correspond with the desired image. Public relations is concerned with creating a favourable climate for marketing the client's products or services, including maintaining good relations with merchants and distributors as well as placing product publicity and disseminating information to trade and industrial groups. This calls for the preparation of technical articles addressed to technicians and engineers and of others translating technical information for lay readers. It further includes publicizing praiseworthy activities by company personnel. Financial public relations involves relations with a company's own stockholders (stockholder relations) as well as with the investment community.

To a large extent, the job of public relations is to optimize good news and to forestall bad news, but when disaster strikes, the public relations practitioner's task, in consultation with legal counsel, is to assess the situation and the damage, to assemble the facts, together with necessary background information, and to offer these to the news media, along with answers to their questions of fact. When a client is under attack, it is a public relations responsibility to organize the client's response—usually involving several complicated issues—to be both lucid and persuasive.

Government relations is often included in public relations under the general designation of public affairs and encompasses lobbying. Industrial relations (i.e., labour-management relations), employee relations, and customer relations sometimes are accounted part of public relations. Community relations is important wherever a client has an office or plant.

Modern corporate executives often do not excel at public speaking or writing in nonbusiness language, and a duty of public relations is to translate executives' knowledge into speeches or articles intelligible to nonspecialists. In fact, the prime responsibility of public relations can be seen as interpreting the client to the public and vice versa.

From the 1940s responsible public relations practitioners have endeavoured to codify and uphold ethical standards. Many have attempted to bring the status of a profession to their calling, through associations such as the Public Relations Society of America, the Public Relations Consultants Association (London), the Fédération Européene des Relations Publiques (Brussels), and the International Public Relations Association (London). Many colleges and universities offer not only courses but also academic majors in public relations. Boston University was the first to establish a School of Public Relations (later, Communications) in 1947.