Nobel Prize winners by year (1991–2000)

year category name country* achievement literary area

1991

chemistry Ernst, Richard R. Switzerland improvements in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

economics Coase, Ronald U.S. application of economic principles to the study of law

literature Gordimer, Nadine South Africa novelist

peace Aung San Suu Kyi Myanmar

physics Gennes, Pierre-Gilles de France discovery of general rules for behaviour of molecules

physiology/

medicine Neher, Erwin Germany discovery of how cells communicate, as related to diseases

physiology/

medicine Sakmann, Bert Germany discovery of how cells communicate, as related to diseases

1992

chemistry Marcus, Rudolph A. U.S. explanation of how electrons transfer between molecules

economics Becker, Gary S. U.S. application of economic theory to social sciences

literature Walcott, Derek St. Lucia poet

peace Menchú, Rigoberta Guatemala

physics Charpak, Georges France inventor of detector that traces subatomic particles

physiology/

medicine Fischer, Edmond H. U.S. discovery of class of enzymes called protein kinases

physiology/

medicine Krebs, Edwin Gerhard U.S. discovery of class of enzymes called protein kinases

1993

chemistry Mullis, Kary B. U.S. inventors of techniques for gene study and manipulation

chemistry Smith, Michael Canada inventors of techniques for gene study and manipulation

economics Fogel, Robert William U.S. contributions to economic history

economics North, Douglass C. U.S. contributions to economic history

literature Morrison, Toni U.S. novelist

peace de Klerk, F.W. South Africa

peace Mandela, Nelson South Africa

physics Hulse, Russell Alan U.S. identifying binary pulsars

physics Taylor, Joseph H., Jr. U.S. identifying binary pulsars

physiology/

medicine Roberts, Richard J. U.K. discovery of "split," or interrupted, genetic structure

physiology/

medicine Sharp, Phillip A. U.S. discovery of "split," or interrupted, genetic structure

1994

chemistry Olah, George A. U.S. development of techniques to study hydrocarbon molecules

economics Harsanyi, John C. U.S. development of game theory

economics Nash, John F. (Nash, John F., Jr.) U.S. development of game theory

economics Selten, Reinhard Germany development of game theory

literature Oe Kenzaburo (Ōe Kenzaburō) Japan novelist

peace Arafat, Yasir (Arafāt, Yāsirʿ) Palestinian

peace Peres, Shimon Israel

peace Rabin, Yitzhak Israel

physics Brockhouse, Bertram N. Canada development of neutron-scattering techniques

physics Shull, Clifford G. U.S. development of neutron-scattering techniques

physiology/

medicine Gilman, Alfred G. U.S. discovery of cell signalers called G-proteins

physiology/

medicine Rodbell, Martin U.S. discovery of cell signalers called G-proteins

1995

chemistry Crutzen, Paul The Netherlands explanation of processes that deplete Earth's ozone layer

chemistry Molina, Mario U.S. explanation of processes that deplete Earth's ozone layer

chemistry Rowland, F. Sherwood U.S. explanation of processes that deplete Earth's ozone layer

economics Lucas, Robert E., Jr. U.S. incorporation of rational expectations in macroeconomic theory

literature Heaney, Seamus Ireland poet

peace Pugwash Conferences (founded 1957)

peace Rotblat, Joseph (Rotblat, Sir Joseph) U.K.

physics Perl, Martin Lewis U.S. discovery of tau subatomic particle

physics Reines, Frederick U.S. discovery of neutrino subatomic particle

physiology/

medicine Lewis, Edward B. U.S. identification of genes that control the body's early structural development

physiology/

medicine Nüsslein-Volhard, Christiane Germany identification of genes that control the body's early structural development

physiology/

medicine Wieschaus, Eric F. U.S. identification of genes that control the body's early structural development

1996

chemistry Curl, Robert F., Jr. U.S. discovery of new carbon compounds called fullerenes

chemistry Kroto, Sir Harold W. U.K. discovery of new carbon compounds called fullerenes

chemistry Smalley, Richard E. U.S. discovery of new carbon compounds called fullerenes

economics Mirrlees, James A. U.K. contributions to theory of incentives under conditions of asymmetric information

economics Vickrey, William U.S. contributions to theory of incentives under conditions of asymmetric information

literature Szymborska, Wislawa (Szymborska, Wisława) Poland poet

peace Belo, Carlos Felipe Ximenes (Belo, Carlos Filipe Ximenes) Timorese

peace Ramos-Horta, José Timorese

physics Lee, David M. U.S. discovery of superfluidity in isotope helium-3

physics Osheroff, Douglas D. U.S. discovery of superfluidity in isotope helium-3

physics Richardson, Robert C. U.S. discovery of superfluidity in isotope helium-3

physiology/

medicine Doherty, Peter C. Australia discovery of how the immune system recognizes virus-infected cells

physiology/

medicine Zinkernagel, Rolf M. Switzerland discovery of how the immune system recognizes virus-infected cells

1997

chemistry Boyer, Paul D. U.S. explanation of the enzymatic conversion of adenosine triphosphate

chemistry Skou, Jens C. Denmark discovery of sodium-potassium-activated adenosine triphosphatase

chemistry Walker, John E. U.K. explanation of the enzymatic conversion of adenosine triphosphate

economics Merton, Robert C. U.S. methods for determining the value of stock options and other derivatives

economics Scholes, Myron S. U.S. methods for determining the value of stock options and other derivatives

literature Fo, Dario Italy playwright, actor

peace International Campaign to Ban Landmines (founded 1992)

peace Williams, Jody U.S.

physics Chu, Steven U.S. process of trapping atoms with laser cooling

physics Cohen-Tannoudji, Claude France process of trapping atoms with laser cooling

physics Phillips, William D. U.S. process of trapping atoms with laser cooling

physiology/

medicine Prusiner, Stanley B. U.S. discovery of the prion, a type of disease-causing protein

1998

chemistry Kohn, Walter U.S. development of the density-functional theory

chemistry Pople, John A. (Pople, Sir John A.) U.K. development of computational methods in quantum chemistry

economics Sen, Amartya India contribution to welfare economics

literature Saramago, José Portugal novelist

peace Hume, John Northern Ireland

peace Trimble, David Northern Ireland

physics Laughlin, Robert B. U.S. discovery of fractional quantum Hall effect

physics Störmer, Horst L. U.S. discovery of fractional quantum Hall effect

physics Tsui, Daniel C. U.S. discovery of fractional quantum Hall effect

physiology/

medicine Furchgott, Robert F. U.S. discovery that nitric oxide (NO) acts as a signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system

physiology/

medicine Ignarro, Louis J. U.S. discovery that nitric oxide (NO) acts as a signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system

physiology/

medicine Murad, Ferid U.S. discovery that nitric oxide (NO) acts as a signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system

1999

chemistry Zewail, Ahmed H. Egypt/U.S. study of the transition states of chemical reactions using femtosecond spectroscopy

economics Mundell, Robert A. Canada analysis of optimum currency areas and of policy under different exchange rate regimes

literature Grass, Günter Germany novelist

peace Doctors Without Borders (founded 1971)

physics Hooft, Gerardus 't The Netherlands study of quantum structure of electroweak interactions

physics Veltman, Martinus J.G. The Netherlands study of quantum structure of electroweak interactions

physiology/

medicine Blobel, Günter U.S. discovery that proteins have signals governing cellular organization

2000

chemistry Heeger, Alan J. U.S. discovery of plastics that conduct electricity

chemistry MacDiarmid, Alan G. U.S. discovery of plastics that conduct electricity

chemistry Shirakawa Hideki Japan discovery of plastics that conduct electricity

economics Heckman, James J. U.S. development of methods of statistical analysis of individual and household behaviour

economics McFadden, Daniel L. U.S. development of methods of statistical analysis of individual and household behaviour

literature Gao Xingjian France novelist, playwright

peace Kim Dae Jung South Korea

physics Alferov, Zhores I. (Alferov, Zhores) Russia development of fast semiconductors for use in microelectronics

physics Kilby, Jack S. (Kilby, Jack) U.S. development of the integrated circuit (microchip)

physics Kroemer, Herbert Germany development of fast semiconductors for use in microelectronics

physiology/

medicine Carlsson, Arvid Sweden discovery of how signals are transmitted between nerve cells in the brain

physiology/

medicine Greengard, Paul U.S. discovery of how signals are transmitted between nerve cells in the brain

physiology/

medicine Kandel, Eric R. (Kandel, Eric) U.S. discovery of how signals are transmitted between nerve cells in the brain

*Nationality given is the citizenship of recipient at the time award was made. Prizes may be withheld or not awarded in years when no worthy recipient can be found or when the world situation (e.g., World Wars I and II) prevents the gathering of information needed to reach a decision.

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