any of those Ukrainians who were formerly Polish or Austrian and Austro-Hungarian subjects. The name is a Latinized form of the word Russian, but the Ruthenians are Ukrainians who, by accidents of history in the late Middle Ages, were absorbed into the territory of Lithuania, which in turn was united with Poland. The term Little Russians has also been applied to them. The upper-class Ruthenians in Galicia, Bukovina, and the Carpathian Mountains were assimilated into the conquering nations, whose language and Roman Catholic faith they adopted. The peasants sank into a state of great poverty; their Orthodox priests sought the protection of Rome. The pope accepted, and the Union of Brest-Litovsk (Brest-Litovsk, Union of) (October 6–10, 1596) established a new “uniate church,” whereby the Ruthenians retained their Slavonic liturgy and most of the outward forms of the Greek Orthodox church while acknowledging the spiritual supremacy of the pope.

On the partition of Poland in the late 18th century, a number of Ruthenians passed back under Russian rule. Many of them were quickly reconverted to the Orthodox faith. The Russian government systematically discouraged Ruthenian nationalism until after the Revolution of 1905, when some relaxation was made in the oppressive regulations. Similar efforts were made by the Poles of Galicia and winked at by the Austrian government, but there something was done for the Ruthenians. A metropolitan bishopric was founded at Lemberg (now Lviv, Ukraine) in 1806 and suffragans added at Przemyśl (now again in Poland) and Stanisławów (now Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine).

After World War I the largest body of Ruthenians, those in East Galicia, claimed the right of self-determination, but their short-lived state was soon absorbed in Poland. The Ruthenians in the northeastern Carpathians were given to Czechoslovakia, special guarantees being laid down for their national autonomy. They were formed into the province of sub-Carpathian Russia. The Ruthenians of Bessarabia and Bukovina came under Romanian rule with the protection of the Romanian Minorities Treaty.

After Czechoslovakia was weakened by its loss of territory (Munich Agreement), it appointed an autonomous government in what was then called Ruthenia (October 9, 1938). But on November 2, Germany and Italy forced this Ruthenia to cede its southern districts, including its capital, Užhorod, to Hungary. A few months later, when Germany destroyed the remainder of the state of Czechoslovakia (March 1939), Ruthenia declared itself the independent Carpatho-Ukraine. A day later, however, it was annexed by Hungary.

Liberated by Soviet armies at the end of World War II, Ruthenia was ceded by the restored state of Czechoslovakia to the Soviet Union (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics), which transformed it into the Zakarpatskaya (or Transcarpathian) oblast of the Ukrainian S.S.R. (now Zakarpattya oblast, Ukraine). Since the Soviet Union had already acquired most of Bukovina and Galicia, the great majority of Ruthenians were reunited with other Ukrainians. Now, after the fall of the Soviet Union, most Ruthenians reside in the independent state of Ukraine.